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Questions and Answers
What is the term for a body plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections?
What is the term for a body plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior sections?
- Coronal (correct)
- Sagittal
- Transverse
- Midsagittal
Which body position is characterized by the arms hanging down with palms facing forward?
Which body position is characterized by the arms hanging down with palms facing forward?
- Supine
- Flexed
- True Anatomical Position (correct)
- Prone
What type of body cavity contains the brain and spinal cord?
What type of body cavity contains the brain and spinal cord?
- Dorsal cavity (correct)
- Thoracic cavity
- Ventral cavity
- Abdominal cavity
Which anatomical term refers to a depression or hollow in a bone?
Which anatomical term refers to a depression or hollow in a bone?
What is the inner layer of the serous membrane that covers the surface of organs called?
What is the inner layer of the serous membrane that covers the surface of organs called?
Which body position is described by lying on the back with the face upward?
Which body position is described by lying on the back with the face upward?
Which body cavity houses the lungs and heart?
Which body cavity houses the lungs and heart?
Which term describes a narrow slit or opening in bone?
Which term describes a narrow slit or opening in bone?
What is the primary function of the nucleolus?
What is the primary function of the nucleolus?
Which type of ribosome is involved in synthesizing proteins for export or for use within the cell membrane?
Which type of ribosome is involved in synthesizing proteins for export or for use within the cell membrane?
What is the main role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?
What is the main role of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?
What does the cis-face of the Golgi apparatus do?
What does the cis-face of the Golgi apparatus do?
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
What is the primary function of lysosomes?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for oxidizing toxic organic materials?
Which organelle is primarily responsible for oxidizing toxic organic materials?
What does the inner membrane of mitochondria form?
What does the inner membrane of mitochondria form?
What is synthesized by free ribosomes in the cytosol?
What is synthesized by free ribosomes in the cytosol?
What type of proteins do mitochondrial ribosomes produce?
What type of proteins do mitochondrial ribosomes produce?
Which of the following statements about smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is true?
Which of the following statements about smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is true?
What is the primary difference between temporal summation and spatial summation?
What is the primary difference between temporal summation and spatial summation?
Which autoimmune disease is characterized by the production of antibodies against acetylcholine receptors?
Which autoimmune disease is characterized by the production of antibodies against acetylcholine receptors?
What effect does neostigmine have in the treatment of Myasthenia gravis?
What effect does neostigmine have in the treatment of Myasthenia gravis?
Which type of neural circuit is characterized by signals being sent from one neuron to multiple target neurons?
Which type of neural circuit is characterized by signals being sent from one neuron to multiple target neurons?
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis due to its effect on the optic nerve?
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis due to its effect on the optic nerve?
What is the mechanism by which Botox affects muscle function?
What is the mechanism by which Botox affects muscle function?
What is an effect of temporal summation on the postsynaptic neuron?
What is an effect of temporal summation on the postsynaptic neuron?
Which of the following describes both temporal and spatial summation?
Which of the following describes both temporal and spatial summation?
In Myasthenia gravis, what clinical symptoms may result from weakened voluntary muscles?
In Myasthenia gravis, what clinical symptoms may result from weakened voluntary muscles?
What type of neurotransmitter effect is primarily impacted by the action of Tetanus toxin?
What type of neurotransmitter effect is primarily impacted by the action of Tetanus toxin?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton?
What is the primary function of the cytoskeleton?
Which structure is primarily involved in the formation of cilia and flagella?
Which structure is primarily involved in the formation of cilia and flagella?
What is a characteristic feature of the cell membrane?
What is a characteristic feature of the cell membrane?
What is the primary component of the cytosol?
What is the primary component of the cytosol?
What arrangement do microtubules exhibit in the centrosome?
What arrangement do microtubules exhibit in the centrosome?
How do cilia differ from flagella?
How do cilia differ from flagella?
What role do integral proteins serve in the cell membrane?
What role do integral proteins serve in the cell membrane?
What type of protein is associated with the functions of G proteins?
What type of protein is associated with the functions of G proteins?
What are the two main types of components found in phospholipids?
What are the two main types of components found in phospholipids?
Which type of filament in the cytoskeleton is primarily responsible for cellular locomotion?
Which type of filament in the cytoskeleton is primarily responsible for cellular locomotion?
What is the role of G-proteins in signal transduction?
What is the role of G-proteins in signal transduction?
What happens to GDP when a ligand binds to a G protein-coupled receptor?
What happens to GDP when a ligand binds to a G protein-coupled receptor?
Which of the following is NOT a second messenger activated by G proteins?
Which of the following is NOT a second messenger activated by G proteins?
What is produced when adenylyl cyclase is activated by a G protein?
What is produced when adenylyl cyclase is activated by a G protein?
What is the result of the binding of one ligand to a receptor?
What is the result of the binding of one ligand to a receptor?
Which enzyme is responsible for splitting the GTP molecule inactivated G protein?
Which enzyme is responsible for splitting the GTP molecule inactivated G protein?
What activates diacylglycerol (DAG) in the signaling pathway?
What activates diacylglycerol (DAG) in the signaling pathway?
In the context of G protein signaling, which mechanism involves the generation of two second messengers?
In the context of G protein signaling, which mechanism involves the generation of two second messengers?
What ultimately happens to the G protein after it activates the enzyme?
What ultimately happens to the G protein after it activates the enzyme?
Which second messenger can activate additional protein kinases after being triggered by IP3?
Which second messenger can activate additional protein kinases after being triggered by IP3?
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Study Notes
Body Planes and Positions
- Cardinal body planes: Transverse, sagittal, midsagittal, coronal, oblique
- Anatomical planes and directions: Fossa, foramen, fissure, fenestration, ramus, process
- True Anatomical Position: Body erect, head facing forward, arms hanging laterally, palms facing forward, legs slightly apart, feet flat facing forward.
Body Cavities and Serous Membranes
- Body cavities: Dorsal (contains CNS), Ventral (thoracic, abdominal, pelvic)
- Serous membranes: Line body cavities and organs, parietal layer lines cavity walls, visceral layer covers organs.
Cellular Structures
- Nucleolus: Spherical, densely stained, site of rRNA synthesis.
- Ribosomes: Packages of rRNA and protein, synthesize proteins for use inside or outside the cell.
- Endoplasmic reticulum: Rough ER processes proteins for export, smooth ER synthesizes lipids and steroids.
- Golgi apparatus: Modifies and sorts proteins before distribution, cis-face for protein entry, trans-face for protein exit.
- Lysosomes: Membrane-bound vesicles containing digestive enzymes, digest foreign substances and cell components.
- Peroxisomes: Smaller vesicles containing enzymes that oxidize toxic organic material.
- Mitochondria: Double-membrane organelle, produce ATP, contain their own DNA.
- Cytosol: 75-90% water, site of chemical reactions, contains building blocks for organelles.
- Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments, provides support and shape, includes microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules.
- Centrosome: Contains two centrioles, involved in cilia/flagella formation and mitotic spindle development.
- Cilia and Flagella: Short and multiple (cilia) or long and single (flagella), involve microtubule arrangement for movement.
- Cell membrane: Flexible barrier surrounding cytoplasm, made of phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, and proteins.
Nerve Cells
- Neurons: Functional unit of nervous system, composed of cell body, dendrites, and axon.
- Types of neurons: Multipolar, bipolar, unipolar.
- Neuroglia: Supporting cells of nervous system, types include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, Schwann cells, ependymal cells, and satellite cells.
- Myelination: Insulating layer around axons, enhances nerve impulse conduction, formed by oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS).
- Synapses: Junctions between neurons, allow communication via neurotransmitters.
- Synaptic transmission: Process of communication across synapses, involves neurotransmitter release, receptor binding, and signal transduction.
- Types of synapses: Chemical synapse, electrical synapse.
- Neurotransmitters: Chemical messengers that transmit signals across synapse, include acetylcholine, glutamate, GABA, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, serotonin.
- Synaptic integration: Occurs at postsynaptic neuron, sums up multiple EPSPs and IPSPs to determine whether an action potential is generated.
- Types of synaptic integration: Spatial summation, temporal summation.
- Neural pathways: Networks of neurons that transmit signals, include diverging, converging, reverberating, and parallel-after-discharge circuits.
Neural diseases and drugs
- Myasthenia gravis: Autoimmune disease targeting acetylcholine receptors, affects muscle function, treated with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors.
- Multiple sclerosis: Autoimmune disease affecting myelin sheath, causes plaques in CNS, affects optic nerve, leading to vision problems.
- Botox injections: Block synaptic release of excitatory neurotransmitters, relax muscles, used for wrinkle reduction and eyelid spasms.
- Tetanus toxin: Blocks synaptic release of inhibitory neurotransmitters, leads to spastic paralysis.
G proteins and second messengers
- G-proteins: Couple receptors to ion channels, activated by GTP binding, mediate signal transduction.
- Second messengers: Activated by enzymes, amplify signal transduction, include cAMP, cGMP, DAG, IP3, Ca2+, arachidonic acid.
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