Anatomy Chapter 1: Body Structure

Here are study notes, in bullet point format, that summarize the provided text:

• This chapter introduces body systems, structural and functional organization, body planes, cavities, and quadrants.
• It also covers pathology and terms related to diagnostic and therapeutic procedures.

Body Structure Key Terms

• Chromatin: The nucleus's structural component is made of nucleic acids and proteins.
• Chromatin condenses into chromosomes during cell division.
• Chromosome: DNA molecules contain threadlike structures that carry hereditary information which are encoded in genes.
• Each sperm and egg have 23 unpaired chromosomes, forming 23 pairs (46 chromosomes) after fertilization, where one chromosome in each pair inherited from each parent.
• Cytoplasm: A jellylike substance inside the cell membrane contains proteins, salts, water, dissolved gases, and nutrients.
• Cellular structures, including organelles and the nucleus, are inside.
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): Genetic information is held in a molecule capable of replicating and making copies when cells divide.
• Diaphragm: A muscular wall separating the thoracic from the abdominopelvic cavities.
• Alternating contraction and relaxation aids essential breathing process.
• Metabolism: Physical and chemical changes that occur in a cell or organism.
• It includes both building up (anabolism) and breaking down (catabolism) body constituents.
• Organelle: A cellular structure with a specific function, like reproduction (nucleus), protein synthesis (ribosomes), material removal (Golgi apparatus), and digestion (lysosomes).
• Membranes of organelles are sites of chemical reactions.
• Pathology: Study of diseases, including their nature, causes, development, and consequences.
• Pathology uses laboratory methods for study, rather than clinical exams.
• Peristalsis: Rhythmic contraction and relaxation of tubular organ walls to propel contents forward.

Levels of Organization

• The body has structural and functional levels; each building on the previous one.
• In order from least to most complex, they are cells, tissues, organs, systems, and the organism.
• Cytology: The study of the body at the cellular level.
• The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life.
• Cells use food, eliminate waste, reproduce, and consist of a cell membrane enclosing cytoplasm and a nucleus.
• The cell membrane acts as a barrier and regulates substance transport.
• Cytoplasm is a matrix of water, salts, proteins, dissolved gasses and nutrients.
• Organelles are structures within the cytoplasm that perform functions.
• The nucleus carries the genetic blueprint and regulates metabolism, reproduction and growth.
• DNA is organized into chromatin, which forms chromosomes during cell division.
• Humans have Roughly 31,000 genes that give characteristics and pass biological information for physical traits from one generation.
• Human cells (except sperm and egg cells) contain 23 pairs (46 total) of chromosomes.

Tissue

• Tissues are groups of cells performing specialized activities.
• Histology: The study of tissues.
• Intercellular substances between cells provide pathways for interaction.
• Over 200 cell types form four major tissue types:
• Epithelial tissue: covers organ surfaces, lines cavities/canals, forms tubes/ducts and glands, and makes up the epidermis.
• It is made of cells in a continuous sheet.
• Connective tissue: supports and connects tissues/organs and includes fibroblasts, fat cells, and blood.
• Muscle tissue: Contractile tissue is for movement.
• Nervous tissue: Relays information throughout the body via electrical impulses.

Organ

• Organs are body structures performing specialized functions.
• They comprise at least two tissue types where muscle and connective tissue form organ walls.
• Epithelial and connective tissue covers inner and outer surfaces with Nervous tissue penetrating its lining and muscle walls.

System

• Body systems have organs and structures with similar or related functions.
• For example, the gastrointestinal system includes the esophagus, stomach, small intestine, bowel, liver, gallbladder and pancreas.
• Other systems include the reproductive, respiratory, urinary, and cardiovascular systems.

Organism

• An organism is a complete living entity.
• Complex organisms, including humans, are made of several body systems working together.

Anatomical Position

• It orients anatomical parts and relationships, where the body is erect.
• Eyes look forward, upper limbs hang at the sides with palms forward, and parallel lower limbs point straight ahead.
• Positions are described as if the body were in this position, no matter the body's actual placement.

Planes of the Body

• Anatomists use imaginary flat surfaces called planes to identify sections of the body.
• The most common planes are midsagittal (median), coronal (frontal), and transverse (horizontal).
• Sections are named after the plane, such as the transverse (horizontal) section.
• Modern imaging uses magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) to generate multi-plane, three-dimensional images.

Body Cavities

• Medical professionals locate structures/abnormalities by referring to the body cavity.
• Two major cavities:
  • Dorsal (posterior): cranial and spinal cavities.
  • Ventral (anterior): thoracic (separated from the abdominopelvic cavity by the diaphragm) and abdominopelvic cavities.

Abdominopelvic Divisions

• The abdominopelvic area (beneath the diaphragm) includes organs for digestion (abdominal) and reproduction/excretion (pelvic).
• Two methods divide it for medical purposes by using quadrants and regions.
• Quadrants: Four divisions to show topographical location.
• Regions: The abdominopelvic area is mainly used to identify underlying structures/organs.
• Pain, lesions, abrasions, punctures, and burns are described by quadrant, using an imaginary cross through the navel.
• The location of the stomach would be in the left hypochondriac and epigastric regions, versus the appendix being in the hypogastric region.

Spine

• The spine is divided corresponding to the vertebrae:
  • cervical (neck)
  • thoracic (chest)
  • lumbar (loin)
  • sacral (lower back)
  • coccyx (tailbone).

Directional Terms

• Directional terms are used to show the position of structures:
  • Medial pertains to the midline, lateral to the side.
  • Superior (cephalad) means towards the head, versus inferior (caudal) away from the head.
  • Proximal is near the body's center, while distal is farther.
  • Anterior (ventral) is front, and posterior (dorsal) is back.
  • Parietal means the body cavity's outer wall versus visceral pertaining to internal organs.
  • Prone is lying face down, while supine is lying face up.
  • Inversion means turning inward, and eversion means turning outward.
  • Palmar means the palm of the hand, while plantar means the sole of the foot.
  • Superficial is toward the body's surface versus deep being away.

Medical Word Elements

• Cyt/o references cells (cytologist is the specialist of cells.)
• Hist/o is tissue (histology is the study of tissues.)
• Kary/o is the nucleus (karyolysis is its destruction.)
• Nucle/o references the nucleus (nuclear means pertaining to the nucleus.)
• Anter/o means anterior/front (anterior definition)
• Caud/o means tail (caudad relates to direction toward tail).
• Crani/o refers to cranium (cranial relates to the cranium)
• Dist/o means being far/farthest (distal definition)
• Dors/o refers to the back of the body (dorsal definition).
• Infer/o refers to lower/below (inferior definition).
• Later/o refers to the side (lateral definition).
• Medi/o refers to the middle (mediad definition)
• Poster/o refers to back (posterior definition).
• Proxim/o means near/nearest (proximal definition)
• Ventr/o refers to the belly (ventral definition).
• Abdomin/o and cervic/o refer to the regions of the body.
• Albin/o means white (Albinism is defined).
• Leuk/o is a white cell and it is otherwise called a leukocyte
• Chlor/o means green (chloropia definition)
• Chrom/o means color and is otherwise called heterochromia.

Additional Word Elements

• Cirrh/o means yellow (i.e., cirrhosis)
• Jaund/o has to do with yellowing (jaundice is a condition of yellowing)
• Xanth/o mean yellow (xanthocyte is yellow cell)
• Cyan/o or cyanosis means blue (cyanosis is an associated lack of oxygen)
• Erythr/o has to do with something red (erythrocyte is a red blood cell)
• Melan/o means black (Melanoma definition.)
• Poli/o means gray (poliomyelitis definition.)
• Acr/o refers to extreme points like extremities (acrocyanosis definition.)
• Eti/o means cause (etiology definition.)
• Idio is something peculiar or unknown (idiopathic definition).
• Morph/o refers to form, shape or structure (morphology definition.)
• Path/o means disease (pathologist definition.)

More Medical Word Elements with Suffixes and Prefixes

• Radi/o refers to radiation (radiologist definition.)
• Somat/o refers to the body (somatic definition.)
• Son/o refers to sound (sonography definition.)
• Viscer/o refers to internal organs (visceral definition.)
• Xer/o means dry (xerosis definition.)
• Genesis means forming or origin process (pathogenesis definition).
• Gnosis is knowing (prognosis definition.)
• Gram means a record (arteriogram example.)
• Graph is a recorder of data (radiograph example.)
• Graphy is the process of recording data (arthrography example.)
• Logist is an expert of a field of study (dermatologist example.)
• Logy is the study of (hematology example.)
• Meter is how to measure (thermometer example.)
• Pathy is referring to disease (gastropathy example).
• Ab- means away from (abduction definition).
• Ad- means toward (adduction definition).
• Hetero- means different (heteromorphous definition).
• Homeo- which means same or alike (homeoplasia definition).
• infra- is below or under (infracostal definition).
• Peri- which means around (pericardial definition).
• Trans- meaning through or across (transabdominal definition).
• Ultra- means beyond or excess (ultrasonic definition).

Pathology

• Body cells require oxygen, nutrients, and a stable internal environment (homeostasis.)
• Disease results from disrupted homeostasis, which leads to an inability to function.
• From a clinical perspective, disease is a pathological or morbid condition, which present signs (objective indicators) and symptoms (subjective indicators.)
• Etiology studies the cause or origin of disease.
• Causes may include metabolic, infectious, congenital, hereditary, environmental, and neoplastic factors.
• Diagnosis (Dx) establishes a cause and nature of a disease to help select treatment.
• Prognosis predicts the disease's course and probable outcome.
• Idiopathic diseases have unknown causes.
• Diagnostic tests can be simple (stethoscope) or complex (biopsy), and categorized as surgical, clinical, endoscopic, laboratory, and radiological.

Diagnostic, Symptomatic and Procedures

• Adhesion definition is a fibrous band that connects separated tissues.
• Analyte is the thing you test (like glucose in a tolerance test.)
• Contrast medium injects/ingests a substance into the body used to better view something.
• Dehiscence means when a wound bursts open.
• Febrile means pertaining to fever.
• Homeostasis means staying constant.
• Inflammation is the body's defence against injury.
• Morbid means pertaining to disease.
• Nuclear medicine is the use of radioactive substances for diagnosis, treatment, and research.
• Radiology is a medical specialty using electromagnetic radiation, ultrasound, and imaging.
• Interventional radiology uses fluoroscopy, CT, and ultrasound for treatment.
• Therapeutic has to do with treatment and easing of symptoms.
• Radionuclides emit radiation spontaneously and come in various safe quantities.
• Radiopharmaceutical is when radionuclides connect to other substances to scan organs.
• Scan is defined as a computerized image of bodily structures using CT, MRI, and nuclear imaging.
• Sepsis is a pathological state from microorganisms being in the bloodstream.
• Suppurative describes pus.
• Endoscopies visually exam body parts using light in specialized tools for biopsy, surgery and aspiration.
• Laparoscopy means visuals within abdominal walls.
• Thoracoscopy means sights into chest regions.
• Complete blood counts measure cells and components in blood.
• Urinalysis is a laboratory method to analyze the urine.
• Computed tomography takes imaging with an x ray rotated through an area to create a detailed view of body slices.
• Doppler is an ultrasound that checks blood velocity directions through certain body areas.
• Fluoroscopies display continuous motion images.
• MRIs use magnetic fields and radiowaves to provide body images.
• Nuclear scans identify radioactive tracers within the body.
• PET scans use computers and special chemicals to record how tissues affect metabolic activity and potential diseases.
• Radiography used rays to view an area, or a full view.
• SPECT scans involve tomography and radiocompounds to view certain organs/tissues and blood flow.
• Tomography displays more information via slices and depths.

More Procedures

• Ultrasonography uses sounds to create imaging in 2 or 3D, unlike other methods.
• Biopsies pull samples for testing, to establish potential diagnoses.
• Frozen sections quickly slice tissues from specimens for examination.
• Needles, are smaller tissues samples.
• Punches take core selections to test for a small tissue (which may require anesthetics, or minor scarring).
• Shaving slices tissues using a surgical blade.
• Ablation destroy parts/pathways electrocautery, chemical destruction and surgeries.
• Anastomosis connects sections to allow flow.
• Cauterization means to destroy tissues from techniques like corrosions or freezing.
• Curettage removes spoons of body cavities.
• Incisions and drainage cut in to free fluids or woundedness.
• Laser Surgeries can burn/cut tissues in close ranges with powered, heated power.
• Radical Dissection attempts to clear tissues through excisions to fully attempt eliminate malignant cancers.
• Resection is an partial excision or to remove structures.