Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of organisms and their parts.
• Physiology is the study of the functions and processes of living organisms and their parts.

Types of Anatomy

• Gross anatomy studies body structures visible to the naked eye.
• Microscopic anatomy studies structures requiring a microscope, like cells and tissues.
• Regional anatomy studies the body by regions, such as the head, neck, or limbs.
• Systemic anatomy studies the body by organ systems like the digestive or respiratory system.

Attributes of Life

• Organization is when living organisms are highly organized and complex.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions within an organism.
• Responsiveness to Stimuli occurs when living organisms respond to internal and external changes.
• Growth involves living organisms increasing in size.
• Development involves organisms undergoing structural or functional changes.
• Reproduction is the ability to reproduce sexually or asexually.
• Homeostasis is the ability to maintain a stable internal environment.
• Adaptation is when organisms evolve and adapt genetically over time.

Mechanisms of Evolution

• Natural Selection causes favorable traits to increase in frequency.
• Mutation introduces new genetic variation.
• Gene Flow involves movement of genes between populations.
• Genetic Drift consists of random changes in allele frequencies, especially in small populations.

Genetic Drift Effects

• Bottleneck Effect is when a large portion of a population is suddenly reduced.
• Founder Effect happens when a small group establishes a new population in a different area.
• Sexual Selection indicates traits that improve mating success will become more common.
• Speciation is the formation of new species from reproductive isolation.

Homeostasis Feedback

• Negative feedback counteracts the stimulus.
• Positive feedback amplifies the stimulus.
• Negative feedback maintains stability and homeostasis.
• Positive feedback drives a process to completion.
• Negative feedback restores a system to its set point.
• Positive feedback moves a system further from its set point until completion.
• Negative feedback is common in physiological processes.
• Positive feedback is rare and used for specific processes needing completion.

Cell Theory

• All living organisms are composed of cells.
• Cells are the basic units of structure and function in living organisms.
• All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.

Historical Development of Cell Theory

• Robert Hooke (1665) was the first to observe and describe cells, naming them after monastery rooms.
• Anton van Leeuwenhoek (1674) was the first to observe living cells like bacteria and sperm.
• Matthias Schleiden (1838) proposed that all plants are made of cells.
• Theodor Schwann (1839) proposed that all animals are made of cells.
• Rudolf Virchow (1855) stated "all cells come from pre-existing cells."

Types of Cells

Functions of Cells

• Energy production occurs when mitochondria generate ATP.
• Protein synthesis occurs through ribosomes, rough ER, and the Golgi apparatus.
• Cell division uses mitosis for growth/repair and meiosis for reproduction.
• Homeostasis indicates the cell membrane regulates what enters and exits.
• Waste removal occurs when lysosomes and vacuoles digest waste.
• Reproduction occurs through mitosis (asexual) and meiosis (sexual).
• Transport occurs when the cytoskeleton assists movement.
• Communication occurs when cell membranes and receptor communication allows response.

Parts of the Cell

• Cell Membrane is a semi-permeable phospholipid bilayer with proteins.
• Nucleus is an organelle that contains DNA with a nuclear membrane with pores.
• Cytoplasm is a gel filling the cell, consisting of cytosol and organelles.
• Mitochondria is a the powerhouse that produces ATP through respiration.
• Ribosomes synthesize proteins by translating messenger RNA (mRNA).
• Endoplasmic Reticulum is a network of membranous tubules and sacs.
  • Rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and modification.
  • Smooth ER is involved in lipid synthesis, detoxification, and calcium storage.
• Golgi Apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins/lipids from ER.
• Lysosomes break down waste and cellular debris.
• Cytoskeleton is a network of protein filaments and tubules.
• Vacuoles store nutrients, waste, and materials.

Directional Terms

• Superior (Cranial) is toward the head or upper part of the body.
• Inferior (Caudal) is away from the head or toward the lower part of the body.
• Anterior (Ventral) is toward the front of the body.
• Posterior (Dorsal) is toward the back of the body.
• Medial is toward the midline of the body.
• Lateral is away from the midline of the body.
• Proximal is closer to the origin or attachment point.
• Distal is farther from the origin or attachment point.
• Superficial is toward the surface of the body.
• Deep is away from the surface, more internal.

Planes and Sections

• Sagittal Plane divides the body into left and right parts.
• Frontal (Coronal) Plane divides the body into front and back parts.
• Transverse (Horizontal) Plane divides the body into upper and lower parts.
• Oblique Plane is a plane at an angle to the others.

Body Cavities

• Dorsal Cavity includes the cranial cavity and vertebral cavity.
• Ventral Cavity contains the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity.
• Thoracic Cavity houses the heart, lungs, and other thoracic organs.
• Abdominopelvic Cavity contains the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity.

Skeletal System Functions

• Support gives the body shape and supports soft tissues like muscles, fat, and organs.
• Protection protects vital organs from injury.
• Movement allows acts as levers from pulled by muscles.
• Mineral Storage acts as a reservoir for minerals, primarily calcium and phosphorus.
• Blood Cell Production produces red/white blood cells and platelets.
• Energy Storage stores lipids in the form of fat in the yellow bone marrow.

Skeletal System Structure

• Axial Skeleton comprises the bones forming the central axis of the body.
  • Skull is composed of cranial bones and facial bones.
  • Vertebral Column contains 33 vertebrae that protect the spinal cord.
  • Rib Cage includes 12 pairs of ribs that protect thoracic organs.
• Appendicular Skeleton is composed of limb bones and girdles connecting limbs to the axial skeleton.
  • Shoulder (Pectoral) Girdle includes the clavicle and scapula.
  • Upper Limbs includes the humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges.
  • Pelvic Girdle includes the ilium, ischium, and pubis.
  • Lower Limbs includes the femur, patella, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, and phalanges.

Bone Types

• Short Bones are cube-shaped and offer stability with limited movement.
• Long Bones have length exceeding width.
• Flat Bones are thin, flattened, and often curved.
• Irregular Bones have complex shapes that do not fit other categories.

Specialized Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts form bone by producing the osteoid.
• Osteocytes are mature cells maintaining bone tissue and communicating with other bone cells.
• Osteoclasts break down bone matrix by secreting acids and enzymes.

Types of Joints

• Fibrous Joint is connected by dense connective tissue.
• Cartilaginous Joint is connected by cartilage.
• Synovial Joint is the most common and mobile.
• Hinge Joint permits flexion and extension, not rotation.
• Ball-and-Socket Joint allows movement in almost any direction.
• Pivot Joint allows rotational movement around a single axis.
• Saddle Joint allows movement like a condyloid joint with more flexibility.
• Gliding Joint allows sliding movements between flat bone surfaces.

Muscular System

• Movement occurs when it contracts and generates force.
• Posture and Stability helps maintain posture.
• Joint Stabilization stabilizes joints.
• Heat Production generates heat.
• Circulation plays a role in assisting blood flow.

Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal Muscle is striated with long, cylindrical, multinucleated fibers.
• Cardiac Muscle is striated, shorter, and branched with intercalated discs.
• Smooth Muscle is non-striated and spindle-shaped with a single nucleus.