Anatomy and Physiology Review

Body Systems Overview

• Body systems covered include: Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Digestive, Respiratory, Excretory/Urinary, Endocrine, Lymphatic, Reproductive, and Circulatory

Integumentary System

• Includes functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests
• Consists of skin, hair, and nails

Parts of Skin

• Includes the epidermis, dermis, hair follicle, nerve endings, and various glands and receptors

Hair and Nails

• Hair follicles are epidermal tissue sheaths where hair fibers grow
• Mitosis occurs in the hair root base
• New cells produce keratin, get color from melanin, form the hair shaft
• Nails are hard keratin plates protecting fingers and toes
• New cells produce keratin and die to form the nail plate

Disorders of the Integumentary System

• Acne involves sebum oversecretion, blocking ducts, forming pustules
• Eczema is an itchy allergic rash, worsened by infection, stress, food allergy, sweating
• Fever blisters (cold sores) is caused by herpes simplex virus, which may become dormant and triggered by stress or illness
• Fungal infections include ringworm, athlete's foot, and jock itch, leading to itching and scaling
• Impetigo is a contagious bacterial infection, often in children, resulting in blisters that rupture and form yellow crusts
• Keloids are excess collagen scar formation at surgical incisions or skin wounds
• Psoriasis is a chronic inflammatory skin condition with itchy, scaly, red patches
• Skin cancer includes squamous cell carcinoma, basal cell carcinoma, and malignant melanoma

Diagnostic Tests for the Integumentary System

• Culture and sensitivity tests correlate with bacterial infections
• Fungal culture tests correlate with fungal infections
• Gram stain tests correlate with microbial infections, like bacteria
• Potassium hydroxide (KOH) prep tests correlate with fungal infections, like athlete's foot
• Skin biopsy tests correlate with malignancy

Skeletal System Overview

• Includes functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Skeletal System Components

• Major components include bones, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, and joints

Disorders of the Skeletal System

• Arthralgia is joint pain without swelling or redness, caused by tension or viral infections
• Arthritis is joint inflammation causing swelling, redness, warmth, and pain on movement
• Bursitis is the inflammation of bursae between joints and tendons
• Fractures are bone breaks due to stress, cancer, or metabolic disease
• Gout is a painful condition caused by uric acid crystals in joints
• Osteoarthritis is swelling/pain from calcium deposits in weight-bearing joints
• Osteomalacia is the softening of bones due to vitamin D deficiency
• Osteomyelitis is bone and marrow inflammation from bacterial infection
• Osteoporosis is bone disease that causes decreased bone density, leading to brittle bones
• Rheumatoid arthritis is chronic joint inflammation from autoimmune reaction
• Sarcoma is a malignant bone tumor
• Scoliosis is a lateral spine curvature
• Spina bifida is a congenital disorder via incomplete spinal canal closure

Skeletal System Diagnostic Tests

• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) tests correlate to bone disorders
• Antinuclear antibody (ANA) tests correlate to systemic lupus erythematosus
• Calcium (Ca) tests correlate to bone disorders
• Erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) tests correlate to inflammation
• Fluorescent antinuclear antibody (FANA) tests correlate to systemic lupus erythematosus
• Gram stain tests correlate to microbial infections, like bacteria
• Phosphorus (P) tests correlate to skeletal disorders
• Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) tests correlate to rheumatoid arthritis
• Synovial fluid analysis tests correlate to arthritis
• Uric acid tests correlate to gout
• Vitamin D tests correlate to calcium absorption

Muscular System Overview

• Includes functions, components, disorders, & diagnostic tests
• Muscle movements include abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, pronation, supination, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, and rotation

Muscular System Components

• Components include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle

Disorders of the Muscular System

• Atrophy is the wasting away of muscle due to inactivity
• Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) causes chronic muscle pain, fatigue, and sleep problems
• Muscular dystrophy (MD) is an inherited disorder where muscles are replaced by fat and fibrous tissue
• Tendinitis is the inflammation of the tendons caused by excess exertion
• Myalgia is muscle pain due to tension, viral infections, or exertion
• Myasthenia gravis impacts nerve impulses to muscles
• Poliomyelitis is a viral infection that results muscle weakness and paralysis

Diagnostic Tests for the Muscular System

• Creatinine kinase (CK [CPK]) tests correlate to muscle damag
• Creatinine kinase isoenzymes (CK-MM, MB) tests correlate to muscle dmagage
• Lactic acid tests correlate to muscle fatigue
• Magnesium (Mg) tests correlate to musculoskeletal disorders
• Myoglobin tests correlate to muscle damage
• Potassium (K) tests correlate to muscle function

Nervous System Overview

• Includes the functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests of the nervous system
• Consists of the CNS and PNS
• The neuron is the primary functioning cell

Nervous System (Components)

• The CNS lies at the body’s center and includes the brain and spinal cord
• The PNS consists of nerves outside the skull and spinal column
• These nerves extend into the body, connecting the brain and spinal cord

Nervous System (Additional Components)

• The central nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord
• It serves as the main communication center of the nervous system
• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) obtained via puncture must be processed with great care in the lab

Peripheral Nervous System

• This system includes a nerve network branching from the brain and spinal cord
• An autonomic nervous system controls functions through motor neurons
• Sensory neurons carry voluntary impulses to the musculoskeletal system

Disorders of the Nervous System

• Alzheimer's disease: diminished mental capabilities
• Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: motor neuron disorder
• Bell's palsy: facial nerve inflammation causing paralysis
• Cerebral palsy: impaired muscle coordination
• CVA (stroke): from cerebral hemorrhage or arteriosclerosis
• Encephalitis: viral inflammation of the brain
• Epilepsy: recurring seizure disorder from abnormal electrical activity
• Meningitis: Inflammation of brain/spinal cord membranes
• Multiple neurofibromatosis: Fibrous tumors cause deformities
• Multiple sclerosis: CNS disease destroying myelin sheath
• Myelitis: spinal cord inflammation
• Neuralgia + Neuritis: nerve pain + inflammation
• Parkinson's: muscle tremors and weakness
• Reye’s syndrome: Brain edema/fatty infiltration
• Shingles: acute viral disease

Nervous System Diagnostic Tests

• CSF analysis tests correlate to neurological disorders or meningitis
• Cell count/differential tests correlate to neurological disorders or meningitis
• Culture and Gram stain tests correlate to meningitis
• Glucose and protein tests correlate to neurological disorders or meningitis
• Creatinine kinase isoenzymes (CK-BB) tests correlate to brain damage
• Culture and sensitivity (C & S) tests correlate to microbial infections, like bacteria
• Drug screening tests monitor for the presence of therapeutic drugs or substance abuse
• Lead tests assess neurological function
• Lithium (Li) tests are used for monitoring antidepressant drug therapy
• Lumbar puncture (LP) tests are used to obtain cerebrospinal fluid

Respiratory System Overview

• Includes the functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Respiratory System (Components)

• System consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, upper trachea, lungs, lower trachea, bronchi, alveoli

Disorders of the Respiratory System

• Apnea is the cessation of breathing
• Asthma is swelling and/or the constriction of bronchial tubes
• Bronchitis is the inflammation of the bronchial tubes causing a deep cough
• COPD (chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder) is the inflammation/obstruction of the bronchi and/or alveoli over a long period
• Cystic fibrosis is a hereditary disorder causing the production of viscous that blocks the bronchioles
• Emphysema is the chronic inflammation destroying the brionchioles
• IRDS (infant respiratory distress syndrome ) is a condition affecting premature babies
• Pleurisy is the inflammation of the pleural membrane cavity
• Pneumonia is the alveoli infection of the lungs
• Pulmonary edema (PUL mo ne re DE ma): Accumulation of fluid in the lungs; frequently a complication of congestive heart failure

Respiratory System - Disorders cont.

• Upper respiratory infections infect the nose, pharynx, and larynx
• TB (tuberculosis) is an infectious disease decreasing respiratory function

Diagnostic Tests Associated with the Respiratory System

• Arterial blood gases (ABGs) correlate to acid-base balance
• Bronchoalveolar lavage tests correlate to microbial infections
• Cold agglutinins tests correlate to atypical pneumonia
• Complete blood count (CBC) tests correlate to pneumonia
• Electrolytes (Lytes) tests correlate to acid-base balance
• Gram stain tests correlate to microbial infections, like bacteria
• Pleural fluid analysis tests correlate to infection, malignancy, or organ failure
• Sweat chloride tests correlate to cystic fibrosis
• Thoracentesis tests obtain pleural fluid analysis
• Throat and sputum cultures tests correlate to bacterial infection/ tuberculosis

Digestive System Overview

• Includes functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Digestive System Components

• Includes the alimentary tract and gastrointestinal tract

Additional Digestive System Components

• Major components are salivary glands, liver, stomach, pancreas, and small intestine
• Enzymes such as amylase, sucrase, lipase, and trypsin are essential for digestion

Disorders of the Digestive System

• Appendicitis causes inflammation of the appendix therefore requiring removal by surgery
• Cholecystitis is caused by gallstones made up of precipitated bile blocking the bile duct therefore causing the information inside of the gallbladder
• Cirrhosis is a chronic inflammation of the liver and can be caused by alcoholism, hepatitis, or malnutrition
• Colitis is a type of inflammation that could be either acute or chromic and is located inside the colon
• Crohn's disease is and autoimmune disorder and is also chronic in the inflammation of the intestinal tract
• The most frequently seen symptoms of chron'ts diseases include diarrhea and malsorption
• Diverticulosis is inflammation of the pouches in the walls of the colon.
• Gastritis is another type of inflammation, however, it is one the lining of the stomach.
• Gastroenteritis is an inflammation located inside the stomach and intestinal tracts, this is very similar to colitis except the key identifier is inside the stomach
• Hemorrhoids causes enlargement of the veins, these veins are located inside the anorectum
• Hernia is a protrusion from an organ or structure through the wall of the cavity in the body
• Hepatitis is a liver inflammation caused by Hepatitis viruses
• The liver can also suffer inflammation in the for of pancreatitis
• Peritonitis the inflammation of the lining located inside of the abdonimal cavity
• A common and known issue of the abdomenal cavity includes ulcer which can be caused either by bacteria or to the increase of acid secretion

Diagnostic Tests for the Digestive System

• Alanine transaminase (ALT tests correlate to Liver disorders
• Albumin tests correlate to Malnutrition or liver disorders, also associated with liver damage
• Alcohol tests correlate to Intoxication
• Alkaline phosphatase (ALP) tests correlate to Liver disorders
• Ammonia tests correlate to Severe liver disorders
• Amylase tests correlate to Pancreatitis, pancreas related enzymes
• Aspartate aminotransferase (AST) tests correlate to Liver disorders
• Bilirubin tests correlate to Liver disorders
• Carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) tests correlate to Carcinoma detection and monitoring
• Complete blood count (CBC) tests correlate to Appendicitis or other infection
• Fecal fat tests correlate to fat absorption
• Gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT) tests correlate to Early liver disorders
• Gastrin tests correlate to Gastric malignancy
• Hepatitis A, B, and C immunoassays hepatitis screening
• Lactic dehydrogenase (LD) tests correlate to Liver disorders, it's a general marker
• Lipase tests correlate to Pancreatitis
• Occult blood tests correlate to Gastrointestinal bleeding or intestinal malignancy
• Ova and parasites (O & P) tests correlate to Parasitic infection, specifically worms.
• Peritoneal fluid analysis tests correlate to Bacterial infection
• Stool culture tests correlate to Pathogenic bacteria
• Total protein (TP tests correlate to Liver disorders

Urinary System Overview

• Includes the urinary system's functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Urinary System (Components)

• Contains the kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and the urethra

Disorders of the Urinary System

• Cystitis causes inflammation of the urinary bladder causing bacterial infection in the lining
• Glomerulonephritis is a inflammation of the glomerulus of the kidney
• Pyelonephritis: Inflammation of the renal pelvis and connective tissue of the kidney,
• Renal calculi are an example of kidney stones composed of calcium, phosphate, uric acid, oxalate, or other chemicals that crystallize inside the kidney.
• Renal failure: Complete cessation of renal function resulting in the need for renal dialysis and kidney transplantation.
• Uremia is a condition of excess urea, creatinine, uric acid, or other metabolic waste products present inside of the blood
• Lastly Urinary tract infection (UTI) is a bacterial infection involving multiple organs of the urinary tract system

Diagnostic Tests Associated With the Urinary System

• Abnormal Albumin levels correlate to the issues with the kidney
• Abnormal Ammonia levels correlate to issues with the Kidney function
• Blood urea nitrogen(BUN) tests correlate to Kidney functions, can also be associated with liver
• Serum creatinine levels correlating to Kidney function
• Creatinine clearance in levels correlates to the Glomerular filtration
• Electrolytes (Lytes)' levels correlate to fluid balance
• Osmolality correlates to fluid and electrolyte balance
• Routine urinalysis (UA) correlated to renal or metabolic disorders
• Total protein (TP) abnormal levlels test kidneys
• Uric acid correlating to kidney function
• Unrine Culture Bacterial indication showing the infection

Endocrine system

• Includes functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Endocrine System Components

• Primarily includes the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, four parathyroid glands, two adrenal glands, Pancreas, two female ovaries, two male testes

Endocrine horomones

• Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH),Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Follicle-stimulating hormone(FSH)

Disorders of the Endocrine System

• Marked enlargement in the bones of hands, feet, and the face is due to hypersecretion of growth hormone (GH), in adulthood and is known as Acromegaly
• Diabetes insipidus (DI): Hyposecretion of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), water reabsorb fail, exessive urination
• Thyroid, Cretinism: Congenital deficiency in the thyroid hormones, Goiter: An enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by hyperthyroidism
• Graves' disease: Increased cellular metabolism, Parathyroid

Summary of Endocrine Hormones

• PTH (Parathyroid hormone), increases the reabsorption of calcium and phosphate from the bones into blood.
• Adrenal cortex, Aldosterone: Regulates sodium/potassium levels in blood.
• Adrenal medulla, Insulin: Lowers blood sugar by transporting glucose from blood to Cells
• Ovaries: Maintain female reproductive system/develop secondary female sex characteristics.

Diagnostic Tests Associated With the Endocrine System

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Aldosterone
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Calcium (Ca)
• Catecholamines
• Cortisol
• Glucose
• Glucose tolerance test (GTT)

Reproductive system

• Reproductive system (Overview) Includes Functions, Components, Disorders, and Diagnostic Tests

Females

• The ovaries that produce gametes called ova
• The fallopian tubes transport fertilized embryo The uterus is responsible for embryo development The Vagina receives sperm during intercourse and discharges menstrual blood The mammary glands

Males

• The testes are enclosed in the scrotum producing (spermatozoa)sperm
• The epididymis is responsible for storage and maturation sperms The Vas Deferens is a tube that is responsible to propel mature sperm The seminal vesicles

Reproductive disorders

• Carcinoma , Endometriosis , Fibroids
• Pelvic inflammatory disease(PID)
• Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Reprouductive system: diagnostic tests

• Amniocentesis, Chorionic Villus sampling(CVS)
• Estradiol estriol; Gonital culture, Gram Stain
• Human Chorionic Gonadotropin(HCG), Pap Smear(pap), Prostate-septic antigen (PSA)
• Rapid plasma reagin (RPR)
• Semen Analysis, Venereal Disease Research Laborotory(VDRL)

Lymphatic System Overview

• Includes functions, components, disorders, and diagnostic tests

Lymphatic System Components

• Consists of lymph, lymph vessels, right lymphatic duct, thoracic duct, lymph nodes, tonsils, thymus, spleen

Lymphatic system disorders

• Aids :suppressed immune system- caused by HIV pathogen transmitted through sexual contact
• Hodgkin’s disease- a malignant tunmor in lymphatic tissue production of painless enlarged
• Infectious mononucleosis (IM): caused by Epstein-Barr virus characterized by enlarged lymph nodes
• Lymphoma-A-solid tunmor from lymphatic tissue

Diagnostic Laboratory Tests associated with the Lymphatic system

• Anti-HIV tests correlate to HIV screening results
• Antinuclular antibody(Ana); Complete blood count (CBC) test
• Fluorescent antinuclear antibody (FNA; Immungolobin (Ig) levles
• Monospot,Protein Electrophoresis
• T-Cell Count

The Immune System

• This system controls the body's immune system
• It also can cause a rejection of transplanted tissue

Circulatory System

• Includes functions and components

Circulatory System Components

• Arteries - Arteriorles, Veins-Venules, Capillaries - connect to larger veins or artieries

Blood vessel Structure

• Tunica Externa, Tunica Media, Tunica Intima
• Arteries Have thick walls that deliver oxygen blood from the heart and back toward the capillaries
• Veins have thin walls that transfer oxygen and have poor blood to the heart are a part of blood vessels

·smallest blood vessels = Capillaries:they connect single layers

Heart

• Hollow muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity between lungs
• System Enclosed in a membranous sac (pericardium)

Chambers of the Heart.

• Heart divided into right and left
• divided 4 chambers and partition septum
• The heart contacts

Blood Circulation Through Heart

• Blood is returned to the atrium through superior and inferior vena cavae.

Veins in the Arm for Venipuncture

• Veins are needed so blood can be drawn from the median Cubital vein
• blood pressure can be taken

Blood

• a blood volume of 5 to 6 liters consists of two parts, A Liquid portion called Plasma and Cellular Potions Thrombocytes:Platelets, Erythrocytes (Red blood cells, leukocytes

Blood Components

• The proteins found in blood plasma
• Include Albumin ,Globulins,Fibrinogens
• Blood Cell Volume

• Eyrrhocytes: 45-60 million, Thrombocytes1, Lymphocytes

Erythrocytes

• anuclear biconcave disks approximately 7.2 Microns in diameter are the building blocks of erythrocytes
• Erythrocytes contain proteins the hemoglobin is to transport both oxygen CO

Blood Test

• The red blood cell will have four parts: Plasma, Type A, Type B, and Type AB
• Rh factors determine whether a person is either Rh positive or Rh-

ABO Blood Group Compatibility

• Blood Transfusion
• Type O is a Unverisal donor, meaning their test results are negative and does not fight any test Type AB is universal recipient. And can be any of the others blood types

Leukocytes

• WBCs, provide immunity to certain diseases Normal 4,500 to 11,000 Provide Immunity in certain diseases and are important to phagocytosis

Three Phases of Coagulation (Hemostasis): blood vessels constrict,

• Primary Clauglation( blood vessels constrict), Aggregations, adhension stops bleeding.
• Secondary Cangulation( the clotting factors XII), platelets are needed to help with clot formation
• Lastly Tertiary Cangulation Thrombin and Firinogen level to clot

Disorders of Blood test

• Polucythemic : consistency will be more the enoromly of cell and blood
• Thrombocyto
• Thmorbacytemia : increases
• Anemia : decrease

Disorders of blood versel

• Aneurysm(Bulge formed in walls , Arteriosclerosis (ArTe Rescle),embolsm (moving clot)
• Diorders of Heart;
• :Angular proctories sharppain and chest because blood flow Myocardial infraction and can lead death Bacterial endocarditis :Bacteria infection of linear Rhuematic heart disease: disorder of