Anatomy and Physiology Quiz
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Questions and Answers

What does the transverse plane divide the body into?

  • Anterior and posterior
  • Left and right
  • Medial and lateral
  • Superior and inferior (correct)

Which term refers to a structure that is closer to the tail?

  • Cephalic
  • Ventral
  • Anterior
  • Caudal (correct)

What is the primary function of the electron microscope?

  • To pass electrons through a specimen (correct)
  • To observe general cell features
  • To pass light through a specimen
  • To visualize surface details of a specimen

Which plane is specifically referred to when discussing a frontal plane through the head?

<p>Coronal Plane (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the parasagittal plane?

<p>It is offset from the midline. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which anatomical term describes a position that is away from the midline of the body?

<p>Lateral (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does developmental anatomy focus on?

<p>Changes in anatomy throughout the lifespan (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which field of physiology do the interactions between cells, tissues, and organs fall?

<p>System Physiology (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of water as a universal solvent?

<p>It dissolves all ionic and many polar substances. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of an acid?

<p>It is a proton donor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes a base?

<p>It is a proton receptor and decreases H+ concentration. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What determines the direction of a reversible chemical reaction?

<p>The concentration of reactants and products. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of reaction involves breaking down a large reactant into smaller products?

<p>Decomposition reaction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is pH primarily a measure of?

<p>The concentration of H+ ions. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is true about osmotic pressure?

<p>It generates pressure as water moves across a selectively permeable membrane. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do pH buffers function?

<p>By stabilizing pH by adding or removing H+ ions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In facilitated diffusion, which molecules are typically involved?

<p>Large, polar molecules requiring protein channels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of microvilli?

<p>They increase the surface area of a cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an increase in cell size have on diffusion rates?

<p>It can severely limit diffusion due to a larger volume. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a hyperosmotic solution?

<p>Higher concentration of particles than another solution. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes simple diffusion?

<p>Involves the movement of molecules across a lipid bilayer. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of homeostasis in living organisms?

<p>To ensure a constant internal environment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which level of structural function refers to groups of cells with similar structure and function?

<p>Tissue Level (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an anion?

<p>A charged atom that gains electrons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a non-polar covalent bond differ from a polar covalent bond?

<p>Non-polar bonds involve equal sharing of electrons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the atomic number of an element represent?

<p>The number of protons in the nucleus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes water's high heat capacity?

<p>It requires a large amount of energy to change temperature (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bond is created when electrons are transferred from one atom to another?

<p>Ionic bond (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key characteristic defines an inert element?

<p>It has a full outer electron shell (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these elements is NOT one of the four most abundant elements in the human body?

<p>Gold (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The behavior of an atom is largely determined by the arrangement of what subatomic particles?

<p>Electrons (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does cohesion in water refer to?

<p>The attraction between water molecules (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the cellular level of structure?

<p>It represents the diversity of cell types (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What kind of charge does a neutron carry?

<p>No charge (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of molecular biology, what is a molecule?

<p>Two or more atoms joined together by bonds (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?

<p>The cell shrinks as water moves out. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fatty acid is liquid at room temperature?

<p>Unsaturated fatty acids (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic best describes phospholipids?

<p>Amphipathic with both polar and non-polar regions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is known for containing the hereditary material of a cell?

<p>Nucleus (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of ATP in cells?

<p>Internal cell energy source (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of glycogen in animals?

<p>Store energy in the form of glucose. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the primary structure of proteins?

<p>The sequence of amino acids. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component forms the majority of the lipid bilayer?

<p>Phospholipid (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components of the nuclear envelope facilitates transport?

<p>Nuclear Pores (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of fibrous proteins?

<p>Insoluble in water and highly stable. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of RNA compared to DNA?

<p>Single-stranded (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of bonding primarily stabilizes the secondary structure of proteins?

<p>Hydrogen bonds. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of lysosomes in a cell?

<p>Degrading harmful substances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way do active transport and facilitated diffusion differ?

<p>Active transport requires ATP, while facilitated diffusion does not. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which is not a function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

<p>Protein synthesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which carbohydrate is primarily used for energy storage in plants?

<p>Starch. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of solution would cause a cell to swell and potentially burst?

<p>Hypotonic solution. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the channels between cells that enable communication called?

<p>Gap junctions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sugar is found in DNA?

<p>Deoxyribose (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of enzymes in biological reactions?

<p>Convert substrates into products without changing themselves. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism involves the cell taking in substances through vesicle formation?

<p>Endocytosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does denaturation affect proteins?

<p>It causes them to lose their specific shape. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of molecule is formed from glycerol and three fatty acids?

<p>Triglyceride. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the rough endoplasmic reticulum primarily produce?

<p>Proteins (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells would most likely have a high concentration of peroxisomes?

<p>Liver cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a solution with an equal concentration of solutes compared to the cytoplasm of a cell?

<p>Isotonic. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature do phospholipids have that makes them suitable for forming a bilayer?

<p>Amphipathic nature (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process where DNA strands are unwound and separated by helicase?

<p>Initiation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily focused on DNA synthesis?

<p>S phase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about transcription is true?

<p>Transcription uses DNA as a template for RNA synthesis. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During DNA replication, which enzyme is responsible for linking neighboring nucleotides?

<p>DNA polymerase (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the phenotype of an individual?

<p>The expression of genes as physical traits (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation affects only the body cells and is not inherited?

<p>Somatic mutation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in protein modification?

<p>Packaging and sorting proteins (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the structure of RNA?

<p>RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do transcription factors do in the process of gene expression?

<p>Bind to the promoter region to activate genes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from the semiconservative model of DNA replication?

<p>Two new DNA strands with one old and one new strand each (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of codon signifies the beginning of protein synthesis?

<p>Start codon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can protein production change over a person's life?

<p>Different proteins are produced depending on environmental factors. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the genetic code?

<p>Some codons can code for the same amino acid. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which proteins are primarily involved in the degradation of unnecessary proteins?

<p>Proteasomes (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of somatic mutations?

<p>They can result in cancer but are not inherited. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation introduces an early STOP codon into the mRNA sequence?

<p>Nonsense mutation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic best describes a missense mutation?

<p>It replaces one amino acid in a protein with another. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which blood type is the result of a homozygous IA allele pair?

<p>Type A (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does polygenic inheritance refer to?

<p>Multiple genes control a single trait. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the ABO blood type system?

<p>It involves multiple alleles affecting the trait. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which condition is the genotype HSHS most commonly observed?

<p>Sickle cell anemia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following mutations is most likely to be visibly expressed only in individuals with two copies of the allele?

<p>Nonsense mutation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a child inheriting an X chromosome with a hemophilia allele from their mother?

<p>The child will exhibit hemophilia if male. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of tumor suppressor genes?

<p>They inhibit cell proliferation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which syndrome is characterized by having an XXY karyotype?

<p>Klinefelter syndrome (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the inheritance pattern that allows for two different alleles to express their effects simultaneously?

<p>Codominance or Incomplete Dominance (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary way cancer genes mutate?

<p>Inherited fragile alleles and environmental factors (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of oncogenes?

<p>To stimulate rapid cell proliferation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Transverse Plane

A plane that divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) parts.

Frontal Plane

A plane that divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.

Sagittal Plane

A plane that divides the body into left and right parts.

Midsagittal Plane

A sagittal plane that goes right down the middle of the body, dividing it into equal left and right halves.

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Parasagittal Plane

A sagittal plane that is offset from the midline, dividing the body into unequal left and right parts.

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Axial

The central part of the body, including the head, neck, and trunk.

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Appendicular

The limbs (arms and legs) attached to the body's axis.

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Proximal

A structure closer to the point of attachment to the axial skeleton.

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Homeostasis

The ability of a body to maintain a relatively stable internal environment despite external changes; a dynamic equilibrium, not a static state.

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Reversible Reactions in Homeostasis

The tendency of a body to maintain a constant internal environment through a series of interconnected and reversible reactions.

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Complementarity of Structure and Function

The principle stating that the structure of a biological component dictates its function. In other words, form follows function.

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Chemical Level

The simplest level of organization in the body, composed of atoms and molecules.

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Cellular Level

The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms, with specific and variable structures.

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Tissue Level

Groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific function.

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Organ Level

A distinct structure composed of two or more tissue types that work together to perform a common function.

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Organ System Level

A group of organs that cooperate to perform a major bodily function.

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Element

A substance that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by ordinary chemical means.

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Atom

The smallest unit of an element that retains the chemical properties of that element.

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Nucleus

The central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons.

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Proton

A positively charged subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom.

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Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which defines the element.

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Neutron

A neutral subatomic particle found in the nucleus of an atom

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Electron

A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus of an atom in shells.

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Solvent

A liquid that dissolves solutes, creating a homogeneous mixture called a solution.

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Chemical Reaction

A process that involves breaking or forming chemical bonds, resulting in changes in the composition of matter.

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Synthesis Reaction

A chemical reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a larger product. It's often associated with building up complex molecules.

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Decomposition Reaction

A chemical reaction where a larger reactant breaks down into two or more smaller products. Often associated with breaking down complex molecules.

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Reversible Chemical Reaction

Any chemical reaction can proceed in both directions, but one direction might be favored depending on the concentration of reactants and products.

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Kinetic Energy

Energy that is associated with motion, including the movement of molecules and the creation of chemical bonds.

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Potential Energy

Energy that is stored within the structure of matter, like the chemical bonds in a molecule. It has the potential to be released and used to do work.

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pH

A measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It specifically focuses on the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+).

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Base

A solution that has a higher concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) than hydrogen ions (H+), making it basic or alkaline. Its pH value is greater than 7.

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pH Buffer

A compound that helps stabilize the pH of a solution by absorbing or releasing hydrogen ions (H+). It usually contains both a weak acid and a weak base.

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Solution

A homogeneous mixture where a solvent dissolves one or more solutes.

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Cytoplasm

The fluid within a cell, composed of cytosol (aqueous gel) and the cytoskeleton (protein network).

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Cytoskeleton

A network of protein fibers that provides structure, support, and movement to a cell.

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Diffusion

The random movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration.

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Osmosis

The net movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from a region of high water concentration to a region of low water concentration.

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DNA Replication

The process of creating two identical DNA double helices from one original double helix.

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Helicase

An enzyme that breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two strands of DNA, allowing them to unwind.

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Elongation (DNA Replication)

The process of producing a new strand of DNA using the original strand as a template.

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Semiconservative Replication

A type of DNA replication where each new double helix contains one original strand and one new strand.

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DNA Polymerase

An enzyme that adds new nucleotides to the new DNA strand, matching them to the original strand.

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Mutation

An error in the DNA sequence introduced during DNA replication, radiation exposure, chemical exposure, or UV light.

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Somatic Mutation

A mutation in a body cell that can affect the function of a tissue or organ.

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Germline Mutation

A mutation in a sperm or egg cell that can be passed on to offspring.

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Transcription

The process of creating messenger RNA (mRNA) using DNA as a template.

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Translation

The process of translating the instructions in mRNA into a protein.

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Triplet Codon

Three consecutive nucleotides in mRNA that code for a specific amino acid.

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Protein Modification

The process of modifying and packaging proteins after they are translated.

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Protein Degradation

The process of breaking down proteins that are no longer needed.

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Phenotype

The observable traits of an individual, determined by their genes.

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Hypertonic solution

A solution with a higher concentration of solutes compared to the cell's cytoplasm, causing water to move out of the cell and making it shrink.

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Hypotonic solution

A solution with a lower concentration of solutes compared to the cell's cytoplasm, causing water to move into the cell and making it swell.

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Isotonic solution

A solution with the same concentration of solutes as the cell's cytoplasm, resulting in no net movement of water. The cell maintains its shape.

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Active Transport

The movement of molecules across a cell membrane against their concentration gradient, requiring energy.

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Primary Active Transport

Active transport that directly uses ATP (energy) to move molecules across the membrane.

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Secondary Active Transport

Active transport where the movement of one molecule down its concentration gradient provides the energy to move another molecule against its concentration gradient.

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Carbon-based molecules

Organic molecules are based on carbon atoms, forming the backbone of many vital molecules in living organisms.

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Cholesterol

A type of lipid with a multi-ringed structure, important for cell membrane flexibility and steroid synthesis. It is NOT used for energy.

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Fatty acids

Long carbon chains ending with a carboxyl group (-COOH). They are building blocks for fats and oils.

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Saturated fatty acids

Fatty acids with only single bonds between carbon atoms, usually solid at room temperature.

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Unsaturated fatty acids

Fatty acids with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms, typically liquid at room temperature.

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Triglycerides

A lipid composed of glycerol linked to three fatty acids, serving as long-term energy storage, insulation, and shock absorption.

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Phospholipids

A lipid composed of glycerol linked to two fatty acids and a phosphate group. It is amphipathic, with a polar head and non-polar tails, and a major component of cell membranes.

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Monosaccharides

Simple sugars that are the basic building blocks of carbohydrates. They are soluble in water.

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Disaccharides

Sugars formed by the combination of two monosaccharides. They are also soluble in water, but typically too large to be absorbed from the digestive tract without further breakdown.

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Causes of Mutations

Mutations can arise from mistakes during DNA replication, exposure to radiation, ultraviolet light, or certain chemicals.

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Missense Mutation

A type of mutation that changes the amino acid sequence in a protein, potentially leading to a change in function.

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Nonsense Mutation

A mutation that introduces a premature stop codon, resulting in a shorter and often non-functional protein.

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Silent Mutation

A mutation that changes the DNA and mRNA sequence, but does not alter the amino acid sequence of the protein.

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Dominant/Recessive Inheritance

The inheritance pattern where one allele masks the expression of another allele.

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Codominance or Incomplete Dominance

The inheritance pattern where both alleles contribute to the phenotype, resulting in a combination of both traits.

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Sickle Cell Anemia

A genetic disorder where the red blood cells are abnormally shaped, leading to complications like anemia and pain.

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Multiple Alleles

The inheritance pattern where multiple alleles exist for a given gene, allowing for greater variation in traits.

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Polygenic Inheritance

The inheritance pattern where a trait is influenced by multiple genes.

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Karyotype

The complete set of chromosomes in an individual, usually arranged in pairs from largest to smallest.

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Autosomes

Chromosomes other than the sex chromosomes (X and Y).

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Sex Chromosomes

The last pair of chromosomes, responsible for determining sex.

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Down Syndrome

A genetic condition caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21, resulting in physical and developmental characteristics.

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Sex-Linked Genes

Genes located on the X or Y chromosome.

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What are the five nitrogenous bases found in nucleic acids?

Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Cytosine (C), Guanine (G), and Uracil (U) are the five nitrogenous bases found in nucleic acids. Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, and Guanine are found in DNA. Uracil is found in RNA.

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What are the two sugars found in nucleic acids?

Ribose and deoxyribose are the two sugars found in nucleic acids. Ribose is found in RNA and deoxyribose is found in DNA.

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What is ATP?

ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is the most common form of internal cell energy. ATP is generated during cellular respiration, the process of breaking down glucose for energy.

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What are nucleotides?

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids, which are composed of a phosphate, a sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and a base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine, or uracil)

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What is DNA?

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is a double-stranded molecule used for storing genetic information. It is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).

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What is RNA?

RNA (ribonucleic acid) is a single-stranded molecule that acts as a temporary blueprint for making proteins. It is composed of a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases (adenine, uracil, cytosine, and guanine).

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What is the Fluid Mosaic Model?

The Fluid Mosaic Model describes the structure of cell membranes. It is a bilayer of phospholipids with embedded proteins, carbohydrates, and cholesterol.

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What are phospholipids?

Phospholipids are a type of lipid that makes up the majority of cell membranes. They are amphipathic, meaning they have both hydrophilic (water-loving) and hydrophobic (water-fearing) regions.

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What are glycolipids?

Glycolipids are phospholipids with attached sugar molecules. They are found on the outer surface of cell membranes and play a role in cell recognition.

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What is cholesterol's role in cell membranes?

Cholesterol is a steroid that helps stabilize and increase the flexibility of cell membranes.

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What are tight junctions?

Tight junctions are cell junctions that tightly bind adjacent cells together, preventing molecules from passing between them.

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What are desmosomes?

Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) are strong cell junctions that hold neighboring cells together. They prevent cells from ripping apart under force by providing structural support.

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What are gap junctions?

Gap junctions are cell junctions that create channels between adjacent cells, allowing for greater communication and coordination.

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What is endocytosis?

Endocytosis is the process of taking up substances into the cell via vesicles by pinching off a small part of the cell membrane.

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What is exocytosis?

Exocytosis is the process of releasing substances from the cell via vesicles by fusing with the cell membrane.

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What is the endomembrane system?

The endomembrane system is a network of organelles that are interconnected through vesicles. They work together to produce, store, and export biological molecules, and to degrade potentially harmful substances.

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What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is a continuous, highly folded membrane studded with ribosomes. It is involved in protein synthesis and packaging.

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What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) is a continuous, highly folded membrane without ribosomes. It is involved in the synthesis and transport of lipids and steroids as well as detoxification.

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What is the Golgi apparatus?

The Golgi apparatus is a series of stacked, membrane-bound sacs that process, package, and sort proteins. It also sends proteins to their final destinations within the cell or outside the cell.

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What are lysosomes?

Lysosomes are vesicles that bud off the Golgi apparatus. They contain digestive enzymes that break down waste products and cellular debris.

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What are Peroxisomes?

Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound organelles that contain oxidases. They play a role in detoxification and in protecting the cell from free radicals.

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What are mitochondria?

Mitochondria are organelles responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration. They are small, rod-shaped structures with a folded inner membrane (cristae).

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What is the nucleus?

The nucleus is the control center of the cell that contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) in the form of chromosomes. It is a prominent, usually spherical structure located near the center of the cell.

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What is the nucleolus?

The nucleolus is a darker region within the nucleus where ribosomes are made.

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What is the nuclear envelope?

The nuclear envelope is a double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus. The outer layer is continuous with the ER.

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What are nuclear pores?

Nuclear pores are channels in the nuclear envelope that allow for the passage of molecules between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.

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What are chromosomes?

Chromosomes are thread-like structures composed of DNA that contain genes. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes in each cell.

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Study Notes

Body Planes

  • Transverse Plane (cross section): Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts, parallel to the ground.
  • Frontal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts, perpendicular to the ground.
  • Coronal Plane: A frontal plane through the head.
  • Sagittal Plane (median plane): Divides the body into left and right parts, perpendicular to the ground.
  • Midsagittal Plane: A sagittal plane through the midline, dividing the body into equal halves.
  • Parasagittal Plane: A sagittal plane that is offset from the midline.

Regional Terms

  • Axial: Forms the main axis of the body.
  • Appendicular: The limbs (appendages) attached to the axial skeleton.

Orientation and Directional Terms

  • Superior: Above another structure.
  • Cephalic: Referring to the head.
  • Inferior: Below another structure.
  • Caudal: Toward the tail.
  • Anterior: Toward the front of the body.
  • Posterior: Toward the back of the body.
  • Ventral: Toward the belly (same as anterior).
  • Dorsal: Toward the back.
  • Medial: Toward the midline of the body.
  • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
  • Intermediate: Located between two structures.
  • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment to the axial skeleton than another structure (appendicular skeleton).
  • Distal: Further from the point of attachment to the axial skeleton than another structure (appendicular skeleton).
  • Superficial (external): Toward or at the surface of the body.
  • Deep (internal): Away from the surface of the body.

Levels of Anatomical Study

  • Gross Anatomy: Study of visible body parts and their spatial relationships.
  • Microscopic Anatomy: Study of cells and tissues using microscopy.
    • Cytology: Study of cells.
    • Histology: Study of tissues.
      • Light Microscopy: Uses light to view general cell features.
      • Electron Microscopy: Uses electrons to view detailed cell structures.
        • Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Passes electrons through the specimen.
        • Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Bounces electrons off the specimen's surface.
  • Developmental Anatomy: Study of anatomical changes over time.

Levels of Structural Organization

  • Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules; basis for all bodily processes.
  • Cellular Level: Basic structural and functional units of life, with specific structures.
  • Tissue Level: Groups of cells with similar structure and function, along with extracellular substances (matrix).
  • Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types with a common function.
  • Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together to perform a specific function.

Elements and Atoms

  • Elements: Substances that cannot be broken down or changed by ordinary chemical processes.
    • Essential elements for living organisms: ~20. Major elements for >99% of body weight (C, H, N, O).
  • Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains its characteristics.
    • Composed of:
      • Nucleus: Containing protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge).
      • Electron Shells: Containing electrons (negative charge), arranged in specific orbits. The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the atom's bonding behavior.
      • Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom – defines the element.
  • Ions: Charged atoms.
    • Anions: Negatively charged (gained electrons).
    • Cations: Positively charged (lost electrons).

Molecules

  • Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.
  • Chemical Bond Types:
    • Ionic Bond: Formed by electron transfer between cation and anion.
    • Covalent Bond: Formed by electron sharing between atoms.
      • Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal electron sharing, creating partial charges.
      • Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Equal electron sharing.
    • Hydrogen Bond: Weak bond between a polarized hydrogen atom and another charged atom or molecule.
  • Water: Essential component of bodily fluids, demonstrations cohesion, adhesion, high heat capacity, and high heat of vaporization. High heat capacity means body temperature does not change rapidly and heat is spread evenly. High heat of vaporization means less dehydration, and heat removed when water evaporates.

Chemical Reactions

  • Chemical Reaction: Process involving breaking and forming chemical bonds.
    • Synthesis Reaction: Two or more reactants combine to form a larger product (anabolic).
    • Decomposition Reaction: A large reactant breaks down into two or more smaller products (catabolic).
    • Reversible Reactions: All reactions are theoretically reversible, but one direction may be favored.
    • Energy Conversion: Chemical reactions involve conversions between kinetic and potential energy.
  • pH and Acid-Base: Water dissociation creates H+ and OH-. pH scale measures H+ concentration—7 is neutral; <7 is acidic; >7 is basic.
  • Buffers: Compounds that stabilize pH by adding or removing H+.

Cytoplasm and Movement of Molecules

  • Cytoplasm: Cytosol + Cytoskeleton.
  • Cytosol: Semi-solid, mostly aqueous medium with dissolved solutes.
  • Cytoskeleton: Protein structures (microtubules, intermediate filaments, actin filaments) that form a framework, allow movement of vesicles, and contribute to cell shape.
  • Membrane Extensions:
    • Cilia: Small extensions aiding in movement of substances.
    • Flagella: Long extensions used for cellular movement.
    • Microvilli: Small projections increasing surface area for absorption.
  • Diffusion: Net movement of molecules from high to low concentration across membranes.
    • Simple Diffusion: Small, nonpolar molecules move directly across the lipid bilayer.
    • Facilitated Diffusion: Large or polar molecules use transport proteins.
  • Osmosis: Water diffusion across a selectively permeable membrane.
  • Osmotic Pressure: Pressure generated by water movement during osmosis. - Hypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentration than the cell, water enters the cell and it swells. - Hypertonic Solution: Higher solute concentration than the cell, water exits the cell and it shrinks/crenates. - Isotonic Solution: Equal solute concentration to the cell, no net water movement.
  • Tonicity: The effect of osmosis and osmotic pressure on cell shape.
  • Active Transport: Moving molecules against their concentration gradient using energy (ATP).
    • Primary and Secondary active transport

Organic Chemistry

  • Lipids: Primarily nonpolar molecules made of carbon.
    • Cholesterol: Multi-ringed lipid used in cell membranes and steroid production.
    • Fatty Acids: Long carbon chains; saturated (solid) or unsaturated (liquid)
    • Triglycerides: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids, primary form of energy storage.
    • Phospholipids: Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group, essential component of cell membranes due to amphipathic nature.
  • Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches.
    • Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (glucose, fructose).
    • Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides bonded together (sucrose, lactose).
    • Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates; glycogen (animal storage), starch (plant storage), and cellulose (plant structure).
  • Proteins: Polymers of amino acids with diverse functions.
    • Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins.
    • Protein Structure: Primary (sequence), Secondary (local shapes), Tertiary (overall 3D shape), and Quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
    • Denaturation: Loss of protein's 3D structure due to factors (heat, pH, chemicals) resulting in loss of function.
    • Fibrous and Globular Proteins: Classified by shape and function.
    • Enzymes: Proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.
    • Protein Uses: Structural support, catalysis (enzymes), transport, and communication (receptors).
  • Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.
    • Nucleotides: Building blocks of Nucleic Acids (bases, sugar, phosphate).
    • DNA: Double helix; stores genetic information.
    • RNA: Single-stranded; involved in protein synthesis.
    • ATP: Main energy currency of the cell.

Cell Membranes and Vesicles

  • Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the structure/composition of cell membranes.
  • Lipid Bilayer: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
  • Cell Junctions:
    • Tight Junctions: Prevent molecules from passing between cells.
    • Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions that hold cells together.
    • Gap Junctions: Channels between cells allowing communication.
  • Membrane Vesicles: Transport substances within and out of the cell. Includes endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis), and exocytosis.
  • Endomembrane System: Series of organelles continuous or linked, producing, storing, and exporting biological molecules and degrading substances.
  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
    • Rough ER: Contains ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and modification.
    • Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification.
  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or use within the cell.
  • Lysosomes: Contain enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.
  • Peroxisomes: Contain enzymes to degrade harmful substances, including free radicals.
  • Mitochondria : Produces ATP

Nucleus

  • Nucleus: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA).
    • Nucleolus: Site of ribosome synthesis.
    • Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus.
    • Nuclear Pores: Allow passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus.
    • Chromatin: DNA organized with proteins, which compact to form chromosomes during cell division.
      • Chromosomes: Structures of genetic material.

DNA Replication and Cell Cycle

  • DNA Replication: Process where a DNA double helix replicates to produce two identical copies.
  • Semi-conservative Replication
  • Cell Cycle: Series of events that lead to cell division, including phases like G1, S, G2, and mitosis.
    • Mitosis: Division of a somatic cell into two identical daughter cells.
    • Meiosis: Cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg).

Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis

  • Transcription: Process of creating mRNA from DNA.
  • Translation: Process of using mRNA to synthesize a protein by ribosomes.
  • Genetic Code: Set of triplet codons that specify amino acids.
  • Protein Modification: Post-translational modifications in the ER or Golgi.
  • Protein Degradation: Proteins broken down by proteasomes.

Genotypes and Phenotypes

  • Genes: Segments of DNA that encode proteins and determine traits.
  • Phenotype: Observable traits of an individual determined by the proteins produced by genes.
  • Gene Expression: Control of protein production by genes.
  • Alleles: Alternate forms of a gene.
  • Dominant/Recessive Alleles: Dominant traits are expressed when the allele is present; recessive traits are expressed only when the dominant allele is absent, usually associated with nonsense mutations.
  • Codominance/Incomplete Dominance: Two alleles are expressed simultaneously. (Ex. Sickle cell trait; associated with missense mutation)
  • Multiple Alleles: Genes with more than two alleles (e.g., ABO blood types).
  • Polygenic Inheritance: Several genes contribute to a single trait.

Inheritance Patterns

  • Punnett Squares: Used to predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific traits from parents.
  • Cancer Genes: Genes affecting cell cycle.
    • Tumor Suppressor Genes: Slow cell proliferation.
    • Oncogenes: Accelerate cell proliferation.
    • Inheritance of Cancer Risk: Some people inherit alleles that increase their risk of mutations that lead to cancer.

Karyotype and Chromosome Abnormalities

  • Karyotype: Complete set of chromosomes.
  • Autosomes: First 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes.
  • Sex Chromosomes (X and Y): Determine sex; X-linked genes.
  • Chromosome Abnormalities:
    • Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21): Extra copy of chromosome 21.
    • Turner Syndrome (XO): Missing X chromosome in females.
    • Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY): Extra X chromosome in males.

Inheritance Calculations

  • Punnett Squares

Cancer Gene Regulation

  • Cell Cycle Regulation: Normal cell proliferation rate varies depending on cell type and body need. Genes that regulate cell proliferation are critical;
    • Tumor Suppressor Genes: Gene regulation that slows the cell proliferation rate.
    • Oncogenes: Genes that speed up the rate of cell proliferation.
  • Some people inherit alleles for cell cycle genes that are fragile (prone to mutation) leading to an increase risk of uncontrolled cell proliferation, forming a tumor.

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