Anatomy and Physiology Quiz

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Questions and Answers

What does the transverse plane divide the body into?

Anterior and posterior

Left and right

Medial and lateral

Superior and inferior (correct)

Which term refers to a structure that is closer to the tail?

Cephalic

Ventral

Caudal (correct)

What is the primary function of the electron microscope?

To pass electrons through a specimen (correct)

To observe general cell features

To pass light through a specimen

To visualize surface details of a specimen

Which plane is specifically referred to when discussing a frontal plane through the head?

Coronal Plane Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the parasagittal plane?

It is offset from the midline. Signup and view all the answers

Which anatomical term describes a position that is away from the midline of the body?

Lateral Signup and view all the answers

What aspect does developmental anatomy focus on?

Changes in anatomy throughout the lifespan Signup and view all the answers

In which field of physiology do the interactions between cells, tissues, and organs fall?

System Physiology Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of water as a universal solvent?

It dissolves all ionic and many polar substances. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of an acid?

It is a proton donor. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes a base?

It is a proton receptor and decreases H+ concentration. Signup and view all the answers

What determines the direction of a reversible chemical reaction?

The concentration of reactants and products. Signup and view all the answers

What type of reaction involves breaking down a large reactant into smaller products?

Decomposition reaction. Signup and view all the answers

What is pH primarily a measure of?

The concentration of H+ ions. Signup and view all the answers

What is true about osmotic pressure?

It generates pressure as water moves across a selectively permeable membrane. Signup and view all the answers

How do pH buffers function?

By stabilizing pH by adding or removing H+ ions. Signup and view all the answers

In facilitated diffusion, which molecules are typically involved?

Large, polar molecules requiring protein channels. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of microvilli?

They increase the surface area of a cell. Signup and view all the answers

What effect does an increase in cell size have on diffusion rates?

It can severely limit diffusion due to a larger volume. Signup and view all the answers

What defines a hyperosmotic solution?

Higher concentration of particles than another solution. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes simple diffusion?

Involves the movement of molecules across a lipid bilayer. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of homeostasis in living organisms?

To ensure a constant internal environment Signup and view all the answers

Which level of structural function refers to groups of cells with similar structure and function?

Tissue Level Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes an anion?

A charged atom that gains electrons Signup and view all the answers

How does a non-polar covalent bond differ from a polar covalent bond?

Non-polar bonds involve equal sharing of electrons Signup and view all the answers

What does the atomic number of an element represent?

The number of protons in the nucleus Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes water's high heat capacity?

It requires a large amount of energy to change temperature Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bond is created when electrons are transferred from one atom to another?

Ionic bond Signup and view all the answers

What key characteristic defines an inert element?

It has a full outer electron shell Signup and view all the answers

Which of these elements is NOT one of the four most abundant elements in the human body?

Gold Signup and view all the answers

The behavior of an atom is largely determined by the arrangement of what subatomic particles?

Electrons Signup and view all the answers

What does cohesion in water refer to?

The attraction between water molecules Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the cellular level of structure?

It represents the diversity of cell types Signup and view all the answers

What kind of charge does a neutron carry?

No charge Signup and view all the answers

In the context of molecular biology, what is a molecule?

Two or more atoms joined together by bonds Signup and view all the answers

What occurs to a cell placed in a hypertonic solution?

The cell shrinks as water moves out. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fatty acid is liquid at room temperature?

Unsaturated fatty acids Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic best describes phospholipids?

Amphipathic with both polar and non-polar regions. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is known for containing the hereditary material of a cell?

Nucleus Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of ATP in cells?

Internal cell energy source Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of glycogen in animals?

Store energy in the form of glucose. Signup and view all the answers

What defines the primary structure of proteins?

The sequence of amino acids. Signup and view all the answers

Which component forms the majority of the lipid bilayer?

Phospholipid Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components of the nuclear envelope facilitates transport?

Nuclear Pores Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of fibrous proteins?

Insoluble in water and highly stable. Signup and view all the answers

What is the structure of RNA compared to DNA?

Single-stranded Signup and view all the answers

What type of bonding primarily stabilizes the secondary structure of proteins?

Hydrogen bonds. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of lysosomes in a cell?

Degrading harmful substances Signup and view all the answers

In what way do active transport and facilitated diffusion differ?

Active transport requires ATP, while facilitated diffusion does not. Signup and view all the answers

Which is not a function of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum?

Protein synthesis Signup and view all the answers

Which carbohydrate is primarily used for energy storage in plants?

Starch. Signup and view all the answers

What type of solution would cause a cell to swell and potentially burst?

Hypotonic solution. Signup and view all the answers

What are the channels between cells that enable communication called?

Gap junctions Signup and view all the answers

Which type of sugar is found in DNA?

Deoxyribose Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of enzymes in biological reactions?

Convert substrates into products without changing themselves. Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism involves the cell taking in substances through vesicle formation?

Endocytosis Signup and view all the answers

How does denaturation affect proteins?

It causes them to lose their specific shape. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of molecule is formed from glycerol and three fatty acids?

Triglyceride. Signup and view all the answers

What does the rough endoplasmic reticulum primarily produce?

Proteins Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cells would most likely have a high concentration of peroxisomes?

Liver cells Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes a solution with an equal concentration of solutes compared to the cytoplasm of a cell?

Isotonic. Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature do phospholipids have that makes them suitable for forming a bilayer?

Amphipathic nature Signup and view all the answers

What is the process where DNA strands are unwound and separated by helicase?

Initiation Signup and view all the answers

Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily focused on DNA synthesis?

S phase Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about transcription is true?

Transcription uses DNA as a template for RNA synthesis. Signup and view all the answers

During DNA replication, which enzyme is responsible for linking neighboring nucleotides?

DNA polymerase Signup and view all the answers

What defines the phenotype of an individual?

The expression of genes as physical traits Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation affects only the body cells and is not inherited?

Somatic mutation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the Golgi apparatus in protein modification?

Packaging and sorting proteins Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the structure of RNA?

RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. Signup and view all the answers

What do transcription factors do in the process of gene expression?

Bind to the promoter region to activate genes Signup and view all the answers

What results from the semiconservative model of DNA replication?

Two new DNA strands with one old and one new strand each Signup and view all the answers

Which type of codon signifies the beginning of protein synthesis?

Start codon Signup and view all the answers

How can protein production change over a person's life?

Different proteins are produced depending on environmental factors. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the genetic code?

Some codons can code for the same amino acid. Signup and view all the answers

Which proteins are primarily involved in the degradation of unnecessary proteins?

Proteasomes Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of somatic mutations?

They can result in cancer but are not inherited. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation introduces an early STOP codon into the mRNA sequence?

Nonsense mutation Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic best describes a missense mutation?

It replaces one amino acid in a protein with another. Signup and view all the answers

Which blood type is the result of a homozygous IA allele pair?

Type A Signup and view all the answers

What does polygenic inheritance refer to?

Multiple genes control a single trait. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of the ABO blood type system?

It involves multiple alleles affecting the trait. Signup and view all the answers

In which condition is the genotype HSHS most commonly observed?

Sickle cell anemia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following mutations is most likely to be visibly expressed only in individuals with two copies of the allele?

Nonsense mutation Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a child inheriting an X chromosome with a hemophilia allele from their mother?

The child will exhibit hemophilia if male. Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of tumor suppressor genes?

They inhibit cell proliferation. Signup and view all the answers

Which syndrome is characterized by having an XXY karyotype?

Klinefelter syndrome Signup and view all the answers

What is the inheritance pattern that allows for two different alleles to express their effects simultaneously?

Codominance or Incomplete Dominance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a primary way cancer genes mutate?

Inherited fragile alleles and environmental factors Signup and view all the answers

What is the main role of oncogenes?

To stimulate rapid cell proliferation Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Body Planes

Transverse Plane (cross section): Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) parts, parallel to the ground.
Frontal Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts, perpendicular to the ground.
Coronal Plane: A frontal plane through the head.
Sagittal Plane (median plane): Divides the body into left and right parts, perpendicular to the ground.
Midsagittal Plane: A sagittal plane through the midline, dividing the body into equal halves.
Parasagittal Plane: A sagittal plane that is offset from the midline.

Regional Terms

Axial: Forms the main axis of the body.
Appendicular: The limbs (appendages) attached to the axial skeleton.

Orientation and Directional Terms

Superior: Above another structure.
Cephalic: Referring to the head.
Inferior: Below another structure.
Caudal: Toward the tail.
Anterior: Toward the front of the body.
Posterior: Toward the back of the body.
Ventral: Toward the belly (same as anterior).
Dorsal: Toward the back.
Medial: Toward the midline of the body.
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
Intermediate: Located between two structures.
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment to the axial skeleton than another structure (appendicular skeleton).
Distal: Further from the point of attachment to the axial skeleton than another structure (appendicular skeleton).
Superficial (external): Toward or at the surface of the body.
Deep (internal): Away from the surface of the body.

Levels of Anatomical Study

Gross Anatomy: Study of visible body parts and their spatial relationships.
Microscopic Anatomy: Study of cells and tissues using microscopy.
- Cytology: Study of cells.
- Histology: Study of tissues.
  - Light Microscopy: Uses light to view general cell features.
  - Electron Microscopy: Uses electrons to view detailed cell structures.
    - Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM): Passes electrons through the specimen.
    - Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM): Bounces electrons off the specimen's surface.
Developmental Anatomy: Study of anatomical changes over time.

Levels of Structural Organization

Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules; basis for all bodily processes.
Cellular Level: Basic structural and functional units of life, with specific structures.
Tissue Level: Groups of cells with similar structure and function, along with extracellular substances (matrix).
Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types with a common function.
Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together to perform a specific function.

Elements and Atoms

Elements: Substances that cannot be broken down or changed by ordinary chemical processes.
- Essential elements for living organisms: ~20. Major elements for >99% of body weight (C, H, N, O).
Atom: The smallest unit of an element that retains its characteristics.
- Composed of:
  - Nucleus: Containing protons (positive charge) and neutrons (neutral charge).
  - Electron Shells: Containing electrons (negative charge), arranged in specific orbits. The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the atom's bonding behavior.
  - Atomic Number: Number of protons in an atom – defines the element.
Ions: Charged atoms.
- Anions: Negatively charged (gained electrons).
- Cations: Positively charged (lost electrons).

Molecules

Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Chemical Bond Types:
- Ionic Bond: Formed by electron transfer between cation and anion.
- Covalent Bond: Formed by electron sharing between atoms.
  - Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal electron sharing, creating partial charges.
  - Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Equal electron sharing.
- Hydrogen Bond: Weak bond between a polarized hydrogen atom and another charged atom or molecule.
Water: Essential component of bodily fluids, demonstrations cohesion, adhesion, high heat capacity, and high heat of vaporization. High heat capacity means body temperature does not change rapidly and heat is spread evenly. High heat of vaporization means less dehydration, and heat removed when water evaporates.

Chemical Reactions

Chemical Reaction: Process involving breaking and forming chemical bonds.
- Synthesis Reaction: Two or more reactants combine to form a larger product (anabolic).
- Decomposition Reaction: A large reactant breaks down into two or more smaller products (catabolic).
- Reversible Reactions: All reactions are theoretically reversible, but one direction may be favored.
- Energy Conversion: Chemical reactions involve conversions between kinetic and potential energy.
pH and Acid-Base: Water dissociation creates H+ and OH-. pH scale measures H+ concentration—7 is neutral; <7 is acidic; >7 is basic.
Buffers: Compounds that stabilize pH by adding or removing H+.

Cytoplasm and Movement of Molecules

Cytoplasm: Cytosol + Cytoskeleton.
Cytosol: Semi-solid, mostly aqueous medium with dissolved solutes.
Cytoskeleton: Protein structures (microtubules, intermediate filaments, actin filaments) that form a framework, allow movement of vesicles, and contribute to cell shape.
Membrane Extensions:
- Cilia: Small extensions aiding in movement of substances.
- Flagella: Long extensions used for cellular movement.
- Microvilli: Small projections increasing surface area for absorption.
Diffusion: Net movement of molecules from high to low concentration across membranes.
- Simple Diffusion: Small, nonpolar molecules move directly across the lipid bilayer.
- Facilitated Diffusion: Large or polar molecules use transport proteins.
Osmosis: Water diffusion across a selectively permeable membrane.
Osmotic Pressure: Pressure generated by water movement during osmosis. - Hypotonic Solution: Lower solute concentration than the cell, water enters the cell and it swells. - Hypertonic Solution: Higher solute concentration than the cell, water exits the cell and it shrinks/crenates. - Isotonic Solution: Equal solute concentration to the cell, no net water movement.
Tonicity: The effect of osmosis and osmotic pressure on cell shape.
Active Transport: Moving molecules against their concentration gradient using energy (ATP).
- Primary and Secondary active transport

Organic Chemistry

Lipids: Primarily nonpolar molecules made of carbon.
- Cholesterol: Multi-ringed lipid used in cell membranes and steroid production.
- Fatty Acids: Long carbon chains; saturated (solid) or unsaturated (liquid)
- Triglycerides: Glycerol + 3 fatty acids, primary form of energy storage.
- Phospholipids: Glycerol + 2 fatty acids + phosphate group, essential component of cell membranes due to amphipathic nature.
Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches.
- Monosaccharides: Simple sugars (glucose, fructose).
- Disaccharides: Two monosaccharides bonded together (sucrose, lactose).
- Polysaccharides: Complex carbohydrates; glycogen (animal storage), starch (plant storage), and cellulose (plant structure).
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids with diverse functions.
- Amino Acids: Building blocks of proteins.
- Protein Structure: Primary (sequence), Secondary (local shapes), Tertiary (overall 3D shape), and Quaternary (multiple polypeptide chains).
- Denaturation: Loss of protein's 3D structure due to factors (heat, pH, chemicals) resulting in loss of function.
- Fibrous and Globular Proteins: Classified by shape and function.
- Enzymes: Proteins that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.
- Protein Uses: Structural support, catalysis (enzymes), transport, and communication (receptors).
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA.
- Nucleotides: Building blocks of Nucleic Acids (bases, sugar, phosphate).
- DNA: Double helix; stores genetic information.
- RNA: Single-stranded; involved in protein synthesis.
- ATP: Main energy currency of the cell.

Cell Membranes and Vesicles

Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the structure/composition of cell membranes.
Lipid Bilayer: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and glycolipids.
Cell Junctions:
- Tight Junctions: Prevent molecules from passing between cells.
- Desmosomes: Anchoring junctions that hold cells together.
- Gap Junctions: Channels between cells allowing communication.
Membrane Vesicles: Transport substances within and out of the cell. Includes endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated endocytosis), and exocytosis.
Endomembrane System: Series of organelles continuous or linked, producing, storing, and exporting biological molecules and degrading substances.
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
- Rough ER: Contains ribosomes; involved in protein synthesis and modification.
- Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and detoxification.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for secretion or use within the cell.
Lysosomes: Contain enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.
Peroxisomes: Contain enzymes to degrade harmful substances, including free radicals.
Mitochondria : Produces ATP

Nucleus

Nucleus: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA).
- Nucleolus: Site of ribosome synthesis.
- Nuclear Envelope: Double membrane surrounding the nucleus.
- Nuclear Pores: Allow passage of molecules in and out of the nucleus.
- Chromatin: DNA organized with proteins, which compact to form chromosomes during cell division.
  - Chromosomes: Structures of genetic material.

DNA Replication and Cell Cycle

DNA Replication: Process where a DNA double helix replicates to produce two identical copies.
Semi-conservative Replication
Cell Cycle: Series of events that lead to cell division, including phases like G1, S, G2, and mitosis.
- Mitosis: Division of a somatic cell into two identical daughter cells.
- Meiosis: Cell division that produces gametes (sperm and egg).

Gene Expression and Protein Synthesis

Transcription: Process of creating mRNA from DNA.
Translation: Process of using mRNA to synthesize a protein by ribosomes.
Genetic Code: Set of triplet codons that specify amino acids.
Protein Modification: Post-translational modifications in the ER or Golgi.
Protein Degradation: Proteins broken down by proteasomes.

Genotypes and Phenotypes

Genes: Segments of DNA that encode proteins and determine traits.
Phenotype: Observable traits of an individual determined by the proteins produced by genes.
Gene Expression: Control of protein production by genes.
Alleles: Alternate forms of a gene.
Dominant/Recessive Alleles: Dominant traits are expressed when the allele is present; recessive traits are expressed only when the dominant allele is absent, usually associated with nonsense mutations.
Codominance/Incomplete Dominance: Two alleles are expressed simultaneously. (Ex. Sickle cell trait; associated with missense mutation)
Multiple Alleles: Genes with more than two alleles (e.g., ABO blood types).
Polygenic Inheritance: Several genes contribute to a single trait.

Inheritance Patterns

Punnett Squares: Used to predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific traits from parents.
Cancer Genes: Genes affecting cell cycle.
- Tumor Suppressor Genes: Slow cell proliferation.
- Oncogenes: Accelerate cell proliferation.
- Inheritance of Cancer Risk: Some people inherit alleles that increase their risk of mutations that lead to cancer.

Karyotype and Chromosome Abnormalities

Karyotype: Complete set of chromosomes.
Autosomes: First 22 pairs of non-sex chromosomes.
Sex Chromosomes (X and Y): Determine sex; X-linked genes.
Chromosome Abnormalities:
- Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21): Extra copy of chromosome 21.
- Turner Syndrome (XO): Missing X chromosome in females.
- Klinefelter Syndrome (XXY): Extra X chromosome in males.

Inheritance Calculations

Punnett Squares

Cancer Gene Regulation

Cell Cycle Regulation: Normal cell proliferation rate varies depending on cell type and body need. Genes that regulate cell proliferation are critical;
- Tumor Suppressor Genes: Gene regulation that slows the cell proliferation rate.
- Oncogenes: Genes that speed up the rate of cell proliferation.
Some people inherit alleles for cell cycle genes that are fragile (prone to mutation) leading to an increase risk of uncontrolled cell proliferation, forming a tumor.

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Test your knowledge on key concepts in anatomy and physiology with this quiz. Explore topics like body planes, chemical reactions, and cellular mechanisms. Perfect for students studying biology at any level.