Anatomy and Physiology: Key Concepts

• The following information is a compilation of key points from the provided material, organized for study purposes.

Anatomy and Physiology Overview

• Anatomy studies the structure of the body, while physiology examines how the body functions.
• Pathological anatomy focuses on structural changes caused by disease.
• Systemic physiology studies the function of organ systems.
• Surface anatomy involves studying external features to understand internal structures.
• Regional anatomy focuses on specific body areas.
• Embryology is the study of development from conception to birth.
• Cytology is the study of cells.
• Histology is the study of tissues.

Levels of Organization

• The body is organized in a hierarchy: atoms, molecules, organelles, cells, tissues, organs, systems.

Anatomical Terminology and Position

• Anatomical position involves standing erect, facing forward, with palms forward.
• Supine position is lying face up.
• Prone position is lying face down.
• Directional terms describe the relative location of body parts, using terms like:
  • Cephalic (cranial, toward the head) - caudal (toward the tail)
  • Proximal (nearer to the trunk) - distal (farther from the trunk)
  • Anterior (ventral, front) - posterior (dorsal, back)
  • Medial (toward the midline) - lateral (away from the midline)
  • Deep - superficial
  • Right - left

Body Cavities and Membranes

• Body cavities include the thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities.
• Serous membranes cover organs:
  • Lungs: pleura
  • Heart: pericardium
  • Abdominal organs: peritoneum
• The mediastinum is in the thoracic cavity, containing the heart, major vessels, trachea, and esophagus.
• The diaphragm separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities.

Body Regions and Planes

• Regions include cervical, brachial, antebrachial, femoral, gluteal, sural, crural, and pedal.
• Abdominopelvic regions exist.
• Abdominal quadrants exist.
• Sagittal planes divide the body into left and right.
  • Midsagittal plane divides the body into equal left and right halves.
  • Parasagittal plane divides the body into unequal left and right portions.
• Transverse planes divide the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) sections.
• Frontal (coronal) planes divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.

Feedback Mechanisms and Regulation

• Positive feedback amplifies a response.
• Negative feedback maintains homeostasis.
• The integrating center for body temperature regulation exists.
• The endocrine system directs long-term responses, while the nervous system produces rapid responses.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the central principle of physiology.
• Failure of homeostatic regulation leads to disease.

Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms determine chemical behavior.
• The innermost electron shell of an atom holds 2 electrons.
• Atomic number is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.
• The smallest stable units of matter are atoms.
• Atomic weight.
• A molecule consists of two or more atoms held together by chemical bonds.
• Subatomic particles include protons (positive charge), neutrons (no charge), and electrons (negative charge).
• Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds are types of chemical bonds.
• Covalent and hydrogen bonds strength.

Chemical Reactions

• Synthesis reactions involve combining reactants to form a larger product.
• Decomposition reactions involve breaking down a larger molecule into smaller ones.
• Dehydration reactions remove water to form a bond.
• Hydrolysis adds water to break a bond.
• Condensation synthesis is another term for dehydration reaction.
• Exergonic reactions release energy, while endergonic reactions require energy.

Enzymes

• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions without being consumed.
• The active site is the region of an enzyme where the substrate binds.
• A substrate is the molecule upon which an enzyme acts.
• Activation energy is the energy required to start a reaction.
• Enzymes act as catalysts.
• Saturation limit.
• Cofactors affect the enzyme's function.

Metabolism and Nutrients

• Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body.
• A nutrient is a substance needed for growth, maintenance, and repair.
• A metabolite is any molecule that is synthesized or broken down in the body by chemical reactions.
• Hydrophilic molecules dissolve in water.
• Hydrophobic molecules do not dissolve in water.

Organic Compounds

• Organic compounds contain carbon and include:
  • Carbohydrates
  • Lipids
  • Proteins
  • Nucleic acids
• Protein shapes include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures.
• Protein structures examples exist.
• Proteins functions exist.
• Denaturation is the loss of a protein's shape and function.
• An amino acid is the building block of proteins.
• Peptide bonds link amino acids together.
• Structural lipids exist.
• The most important metabolic fuel in the body is glucose.
• Table sugar is sucrose.
• Glycogen is a storage form of glucose.

Body Fat

• Most of the fat in the human body is in the form of triglycerides.

Acids, Bases, and Buffers

• Buffers resist changes in pH.
• pH values measure acidity or alkalinity.
• Acidosis is a condition of excess acid in the body.
• Alkalosis is a condition of excess base in the body.
• Nucleic acids exist.

Cell Structure and Function

• The cytosol is the fluid inside the cell.
• Organelles are classified as membranous or nonmembranous.
• Membranous organelles exist.
• Nonmembranous organelles exist.
• Membranous organelles functions exist.
• Nonmembranous organelles functions exist.
• The cell membrane functions.
• Phospholipid bilayer characteristics exist.
• Membrane proteins and Variety of specialized functions exist.
• Glycocalyx functions.
• The nucleus contains DNA and is surrounded by a nuclear envelope.
• Chromosomes are located in the nucleus and composed of DNA.
• Chromatin is the DNA and protein complex that makes up chromosomes.
• The nucleoli function in ribosome production.
• Protein synthesis involves transcription and translation.
• Transcription and translation processes exist.
• Materials move across the cell membrane by various mechanisms.
• Diffusion is the movement of molecules from an area of high concentration to low concentration.
• Osmosis is the movement of water across a membrane from an area of high water concentration to low water concentration.

Solutions and Transport

• A hypotonic solution has a lower solute concentration than the cell.
• A hypertonic solution has a higher solute concentration than the cell.
• An isotonic solution has the same solute concentration as the cell.
• Crenation occurs when a cell shrinks in a hypertonic solution.
• Facilitated diffusion uses transport proteins to move molecules across the membrane.
• Active transport requires energy to move molecules against their concentration gradient.
• Vesicular transport involves the use of vesicles to move large molecules or particles across the membrane.
• Exocytosis releases substances from the cell.
• Endocytosis brings substances into the cell.
• Pinocytosis is the "cell drinking" of small amounts of fluid.
• Phagocytosis is the "cell eating" of large particles or cells.

Cell Division

• Mitosis is cell division that results in two identical daughter cells.
• Meiosis is cell division that results in four genetically different daughter cells, each with half the number of chromosomes as the parent cell.
• Interphase is the period of the cell cycle between cell divisions.
• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
• Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

Tissues

• Histology is the study of tissues.
• The four basic tissue types are epithelial, connective, muscle, and neural.
• The Pap test utilizes exfoliating cytology.
• Epithelial tissue is specialized for secretion, absorption, and protection.
• Connective tissue is specialized for support and connection.
• Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction.
• Neural tissue is specialized for communication.
• Epithelial tissue includes epithelia and glands.
• Epithelia is found lining surfaces and forming glands.
• Epithelial characteristics include cellularity, polarity, avascularity, regeneration, and attachment.
• Epithelial cells have apical and basal regions.
• The basement membrane supports epithelial tissue.
• Epithelial tissue functions in protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, and excretion.

Epithelial Specializations and Classifications

• Epithelial cells that secrete are in the epithelial cells family.
• Specializations of the epithelial cells family exist.
• Ciliated epithelium has cilia that move substances across the surface.
• Ciliated epithelium examples exist.
• Epithelial specializations adapted for absorption exist.
• Epithelium is typically avascular.
• Epithelium connects to underlying connective tissues.
• Neuroepithelia are specialized sensory epithelia.
• Secretions discharged onto the body surface functions exist.
• Intercellular connections exist.
• CAM (Cell Adhesion Molecule) meaning exists.

Cell Junctions and Shapes

• Common types of cell junctions include tight junctions, adhering junctions, gap junctions, and desmosomes.
• Desmosomes description exists.
• Desmosome types and function exist.
• Gap junctions function in tissues requiring rapid intercellular communication.
• In tight junctions, the lipid portions of the cell membranes are tightly bound by interlocking membrane proteins.
• Tight junctions function exists.
• Strong intercellular connections hold cells together.
• Epithelial cells come in shapes.
• Epithelia is classified by the number of layers such as simple or stratified.
• Simple epithelium function.
• Stratified epithelium function to protect and cover surfaces.
• Transitional epithelium allows for stretching.
• Transitional epithelium examples, include the lining of the urinary bladder.

Glands and Secretions

• Simple epithelia is located in certain areas.
• Stratified epithelia is located in certain areas.
• Pseudo stratified epithelium descriptions exist.
• Epithelia usually has a free surface exposed to an environment.
• Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream.
• Endocrine glands product.
• Hormones functions.
• Endocrine glands are ductless.
• Exocrine glands secrete substances onto a surface or into ducts.
• Exocrine glands examples exist.
• Exocrine glands are classified based on their structure.
• Unicellular exocrine glands examples exist.
• Exocrine secretions examples exist.

Exocrine Gland Secretion Methods

• Exocrine glands are classified by secretion mode.
• Merocrine secretion releases products by exocytosis.
• Apocrine secretion involves the loss of cytoplasm along with the product.
• Holocrine secretion involves the destruction of the entire cell to release the product.
• Glands can be classified by the type of secretion they produce.
• Watery perspiration is an example of serous secretion.

Connective Tissue

• Connective tissue functions to support, connect, and separate tissues and organs.
• Connective tissue types exist.
• Connective tissue basic components include cells and matrix.

Matrix

• The matrix is the extracellular substance of connective tissue.
• Ground substance is a component of the matrix.
• Blood's is the watery ground substance.
• Connective tissue proper components exist.
• Fibroblasts and the other cells function.
• Liposuction as temporary.

Skin

• Melanocytes and the other cells of the skin function.
• Macrophages different types exist.
• The types of cells containing histamine and heparin exist.
• Cells increase in number in an infected area.

Connective Tissue Fibers and Types

• Connective tissue 3 fiber types exist.
• The fiber type is dominant in dense connective tissue.
• Dense connective tissue examples.
• Dense irregular connective tissue functions.

Connective Tissue Structures

• Tendons connect muscle to bone.
• Ligaments connect bone to bone.
• Aponeuroses are broad, flat tendons or sheets of connective tissue.

Fluid and Tissue Types

• The major subdivisions of extracellular fluid in the body are plasma, interstitial fluid, and lymph.
• Interstitial fluid that enters vessels is known as lymph.
• The framework or stroma of organs structures is made of fibers.
• Blood, bone, and cartilage are connective tissues.

Cartilage and Bone Cells

• Osteocytes are bone cells, while chondrocytes are cartilage cells.
• Almost half the volume of blood is.
• Cartilage types exist.
• The cartilage type is the most common.

Cartilage Growth and Membranes

• Cartilage is separated from surrounding tissues
• Cartilage grows by mechanisms.
• Mesothelium is a type of epithelium that lines body cavities such as the peritoneum, pleura, and pericardium.
• Mesothelium communicates with the exterior.
• Endothelium is the epithelium lining blood vessels and the heart.
• Mucous membranes line cavities that communicate with the exterior.
• Mucous membranes examples.

Membranes and Specialized Tissues

• A serous membrane lines internal body cavities and covers organs.
• Serous membranes function.
• Reduction of friction is the function of type of membrane reduces the friction between parietal and visceral surfaces.
• Peritoneum, pleura, and pericardium examples exist.
• Muscle tissue functions movement. Types exist. .
• Muscle Tissue w/ Striations examples.
• Muscle tissue w/o Striations examples.
• Neural tissue is specialized for communication. Neurons and glial cells are the basic types of neural cells.

Tissue Characteristics and Repair

• Bone is vascular.
• Epithelium is avascular .
• Cartilage is avascular
• Antiangiogenesis factor: Exists.
• Inflammatory response: Exists.
• Membrane: Exists. Types and function exists.
• Location of Membranes exists.

Tissue Changes and Integumentary System

• Dysplasia descriptions exist.
• Tissue changes with age description.
• Integ system major components.
• Cutaneous membrane components.
• Accessory structure’s name and location.
• Hypodermis.
• Hypodermis true or false.
• Skin general functions.
• Epidermis layers.
• Epidermis vascular or avascular.
• Where epidermal cells with the highest demands are found.
• Epithelial cells are the most abundant.

Skin Thickness and Layers

• Thin skin contains fewer layers.
• Thick skin contains more layers.
• The stratum corneum is thicker in skin.
• The stratum lucidum appears only in skin.
• The strata in order from the basal lamina to the surface are the stratum basale (germinativum), stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum (in thick skin only), and stratum corneum.

Epidermal Layers and Cells

• The stratum germinativum is also known as the stratum basale.
• Hemidesmosomes attach to the basal lamina.
• Epidermal ridges form the fingerprints.
• All epidermis strata contain Keratinocytes.
• Cells found in the basal layer:
• Stem cells functions.
• Merkel cells function.
• Location of merkel cells.
• Melanocytes function.
• Melanin function.
• Albino description and melanocytes description.

Skin Cells and Pigments

• Cells of the stratum spinosum.
• Dendritic (Langerhans) cells function.
• Insensible perspiration and sensible perspiration differences.
• Skin pigments description.
• Where carotene can be found.
• Carotene can be used to make Vitamin.

Skin Vitamins and Radiation

• Vitamin D is required for normal maintenance and the synthesis.
• Body areas that have higher melanocytes.
• Small amounts of small UV radiations is beneficial.
• Melanoycytes respond to radiation.
• Immediate effects of UV radiations exist.
• Blood cell role is important.
• Cyanosis is a condition.

Skin Conditions and Cancers

• Jaundice skin description.
• Vitiligo skin description.
• MSH (Melanocyte stimulating hormone) results.
• Basal cell carcinoma originates in ------layer.
• Common skin cancer.
• Melanoma descriptions.

Key Cancer Characteristics

• Cancer characteristics are description exists.

Vitamin D and Calcification

• Sunlight helps epidermal cells to convert a steroid into Vitamin D3.
• Calcitriol description and synthesis.
• Epidermal growth Factor description.
• Dermis layers and there function.
• Dermatitis description.
• Ulcer description.

Skin Structure and Function

• Hypodermis description and functions.
• Hairs are nonliving structures.
• Hair is composed of cells.
• Hair where it is produced.
• Root hair plexus description and function.
• Arrector pili muscle function.

Hair Structure and Glands

• Medulla, cortex and cuticle.
• Lanugo descriptions.
• Sebaceous glands are holocrine glands.
• Sebaceous glands discharge into the hair follicle.
• Sebaceous follicles large sebaceous glands that are associated with the follicle.
• The lipid secreted by the sebaceous gland description.
• Seborrheic dermatitis description.
• Dermatitis description.

Sweat Glands

• Sweat gland types exist.
• Location of sweat glands that produces order exists.
• Merocrine sweat gland locations exist.
• Merocrine sweat gland functions.
• Ceruminous gland locations exist.
• Nail production occurs at the nail root.
• The cuticle is also known as eponychium.
• Steps of repairing integument following an injury description.
• Granulation tissue? -Scar tissue? -Keloid? -Callus? Description.
• Tattoo description and effects.

Aging Skin

• Effects of aging description.

Osseous Tissue Functions

• Osseous tissue functions exist.
• Bone types exist.
• Bone cells that contain Para nasal sinuses exist.
• Sesamoid bone description and example.

Bone Cells

• Bone cells names and function.

Bone Matrix

• Organic and Inorganic Matrix.

Bone Cells Types

• The largest bone cells names.
• Mature bone cells names.
• Most abundant cells names.

Lacunae and Canaliculi

• Lacuna description.
• Type of cell containing Lacuna.
• Canaliculi descriptions.

Bone Processes

• Osteolysis description.
• Osteogenesis descriptions.

Osseous Tissue Types

• Osseous tissue types.
• What type of tissue that is responsible for the weight.
• Adapted to withstand stress.

Bone Membranes

• Periosteum and endosteum name.
• Location of progenitor exists.

Bone Maintenance

• Osteoclast location.
• Tissue types bone can refer too.
• Bone tissue vascular or avascular.
• Position of the central canal.
• Structure contained and name.
• The position of the Perforating canal description.

Compact Bone Structure

• Structure that are characteristics of compact bone. Functional unit description.

Osteon and Bone Components

• What is the Osteon? What is the Haversian system?
• What is the position of the osteon in relation to the diaphysis description.
• Trabeculae and their osseous tissue.
• Location of bone components.

Bone Names

• Parts of bones description.

Marrow

• The yellow marrows and red marrow location name.

Bone Functions

• Yellow and red marrow functions.
• Calcification and Ossification: Give definitions.
• Name the different types of Ossification.
• Intramembranous Ossification...
• Endochondral Ossification.

Bone Growth

• Interstitial Growth and Appositional Growth descriptions.
• Intramembranous Ossification starts types.
• Hormone and cells functions.
• Abundant minerals.
• Articular cartilage functions.

Fractures and Repair

• Fracture concepts.
• Steps for bone repair.
• Functions of related vitamins.
• Lack of exercises.

Bone Conditions

• Osteopenia description
• Osteoporosis descriptions.
• Osteomalacia/Rickets.
• The description of epiphyseal plate.
• Plate function.

Bone Maintenance and Repair

• Name the vitamins essential for bone maintenance and repair.
• Coordinate hormones name.

Joints

• Organs or tissues that assist with calcium regulation.
• Articulations descriptions.
• Synarthrosis description.
• Diarthroses description.
• Amphiarthrosis descriptions.
• A joint is labeled w/ movable description.
• Synostosis descriptions.
• Epiphyseal line with an example.

Fibrous Joints and Connections

• Fibrous joints types exist.
• Suture with one example.
• Gomphosis examples.
• Syndesmosis examples.
• Synovial Joints description.

Synovial Joints

• Synovial characteristics: Name them.
• Where Synovial Fluid is secreted description.
• Fluid all function.
• More joint fluid facts.
• Give characteristics of articular cartilage.

Functions of Cartilage

• Give functions of articular cartilages.
• Meniscus descriptions.
• Name the knee ligaments.
• Reinforce knee joints.
• Give bursae description.
• Function of bursae description.

Joint Movements and Structures

• Synovial joints shapes.
• Which joint allows greatest mobility.
• Ligaments descriptions.

Healing and Intervertebral Discs

• Healing process w/ true or false.
• Intervertebral disks consist.
• Functions description.
• W/ Disks parts description.

Disc and Aging Problems

• Aging problem description.
• Joint descriptions.
• Coxal joints facts.
• Bone connection description.
• Hip and Sacrum description.
• Movements description.
• Hyperextension give example description.

Movement and Classification

• Sole movements exist.
• Hyperextension description.
• Curls etc.
• Axis numbers exist.
• Monoaxial etc descriptions.
• Luxation descriptions.
• Joint w/ high mobility.