Anatomy and Physiology

• The document consists of anatomy and physiology questions

Introduction

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of living beings
• Physiology is the study of how the structures of the body function
• A cell is the structural and functional unit of all living beings
• Mitochondria produce energy for living beings
• Ribosomes produce proteins and encode genes
• The cell membrane regulates the entry and exit of substances and has differential permeability
• The cell membrane is composed of a lipid bilayer of lipids and proteins
• Homeostasis is the internal dynamic equilibrium of cells
• Tissue is formed by a group of cells with similar structure and function
• An organ is formed by tissues of similar structure and function
• Apparatus/system is formed by organs of similar structure and function
• The body cavities are cranial, thoracic, and abdominal

General Concepts of Medicine

• General concepts are in topic I.2

Osteology: Skeletal System

• Osteology is the study of the bones of skeleton
• Bone composition components include bone cells and extracellular matrix
• An osteocyte is a bone cell
• An osteoblast is a bone-forming cell
• Bone types: long, short, flat, and irregular
• Skull bones consist of the frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital, ethmoid, and sphenoid bones
• Facial bones consist of the malar, nasal bones, maxilla superior, and maxilla inferior
• Vertebral column regions consist of cervical, dorsal (thoracic), lumbar, sacral, and coccyx regions
• Ribs can be true, false, or floating
• The sternum is in the anterior thorax and consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process
• Bones of the upper extremity consist of the humerus, ulna, radius, and hand bones (carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges)
• Hand regions consist of the carpus, metacarpus, and phalanges regions
• Bones of the lower extremity consist of the femur, tibia, fibula, and foot (tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges)
• Foot regions consist of the tarsus, metatarsus, and phalanges
• Bones of the hip (appendicular skeleton) consist of the coxal bone (iliac), sacrum, and coccyx
• The parts of the coxal or iliac bone are the ilion, ischion, and pubis
• Articulation is the relationship between two bones at their point(s) of contact
• The major joint types based on structure are fibrous, cartilaginous, and synovial joints

Cardiovascular System

• Carries blood throughout the body
• The heart is the pump of the circulatory system
• The heart consists of the pericardium, myocardium, endocardium, and epicardium; it has 4 chambers - 2 atria and 2 ventricles
• The pericardium protects the heart
• The myocardium is the cardiac muscle
• The cardiac cycle is composed of two phases, contraction (systole) and relaxation (diastole)
• The two heart sounds are diastole and systole
• An electrocardiogram (ECG) records the electrical potentials generated by the heart
• Blood vessels consist of arteries, veins, capillaries, and the lymphatic system
• Arterial pressure is the force of blood against blood vessel walls
• Pulse is an indicator of heart action, elasticity of large blood vessels, blood viscosity, and arteriole and capillary resistance
• Pulmonary circulation carries blood from the heart to the lung and vice versa
• Systemic circulation circulates blood to the entire body
• The blood has figurative elements; erythrocytes, leukocytes and platelets
• The liquid part of the blood is plasma
• Blood types are A, B, AB, and O; the Rh factor can be negative or positive
• Fetal circulation is blood circulation in the fetus
• The space between the lungs that houses the heart is the mediastinum
• The structures of the lymphatic system consist of lymphatic vessels and ganglia, and the spleen
• Tissue fluid that passes from the spaces to the lymphatic vessels is called lymph

Respiratory System

• Respiration is the exchange of gases in the pulmonary alveoli
• The lungs are the organs of respiration
• The pleurae are serous sacs of two layers, closed, and paired that cover the lungs
• Nervous control is in the respiratory center in the medulla oblongata
• Chemical control: Carbon dioxide is the main chemical factor in alveolar ventilation regulation
• Eupnea is normal breathing at rest
• Dyspnea is difficult, painful breathing
• Tachypnea or polypnea is accelerated breathing
• Hyperpnea is increased depth of breathing
• Apnea is cessation of breathing
• The space inside the lungs is defined as intrapulmonary space and outside the lungs is defined as intrathoracic space
• Organs of the respiratory system: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, pleura
• Structures of the respiratory system include pulmonary lobules and alveoli
• The site of gas exchange is the pulmonary alveoli
• Examples of lung volumes are respiratory volume at rest
• Inspiratory capacity is the air volume that can be forcibly inhaled after normal exhalation
• Expiratory reserve volume is that which can be exhaled post normal breath
• General and local anesthetics decrease sensitivity and cause unconsciousness
• Anoxia is the absence of oxygen

Urinary System

• The organs of the urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra
• The structural and functional unit of the kidney is the nephron
• Urine forms in Bowman's capsule/Malpighian corpuscle
• Hydroelectrolyte balance regulates the elimination of body fluid
• The male urethra is the duct for ejaculation and urination
• The female urethra measures 3 to 4 centimeters

Nervous System

• The nervous system receives information from internal and external stimuli and sends orders to the various organs, governing their functions
• The divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (SNP)
• Neurons generate electrical and chemical nerve impulses
• Synapse is the space between one neuron and another
• Non-neuronal elements consist of glial cells (neuroglia)
• Glial cells include astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells
• Nerve fibers include axons and dendrites
• The parts of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) are the brain and spinal cord
• The divisions of the autonomic nervous system are sympathetic and parasympathetic
• The functional unit of the nervous system is the neuron
• The brain is covered by a three-layered protective tissue called the meninges
• The meningeal membranes consist of the dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater
• The fissure that separates the frontal and parietal lobes is the Fissure of Rolando
• The fissure between the frontal and temporal lobes is the fissure of Sylvius
• The cerebral cortex resides in the telencephalon
• The thalamus and hypothalamus reside in the diencephalon
• Reticular formation (RF) causes the "awakening reaction"
• The spinal cord is composed of bundles of myelinated fibers that transport "messages", and is the white substance
• Vital centers are in the medulla oblongata
• Spinal nerves exit the spinal cord

Endocrine System

• Endocrine glands are ductless glands
• Endocrine glands secrete hormones; this system regulates functions of the body, second only to the nervous system
• Endocrine glands are those whose only function is to produce hormones, and mixed glands (pancreas) produce endocrine and exocrine secretions
• Hormones are chemical substances produced by specific cell types, mostly steroids or fat-derived compounds, or proteins; they travel via the bloodstream
• Hormones stimulate or inhibit physiological processes in tissues and aren't direct products of metabolism; some are essential for life
• The hypothalamus links the nervous system and the endocrine system, regulating secretion in the anterior pituitary, likely by the hypophysial portal system
• The hypothalamus-pituitary axis maintains homeostasis of the various hypothalamic-pituitary axes through positive and negative feedback involving different hormones
• The pituitary gland regulates various organismal processes through hormone secretion and works in coordination with the hypothalamus

Pituitary Gland Hormones

• Growth hormone increases the growth rate of all cells, promoting protein deposition and fat mobilization
• Thyroid gland components: description, functions, and hormones, situated on the anterior neck below the laryngeal thyroid cartilage, consists of 2 lobes joined by an isthmus
• The thyroid gland comprises cyst-like colloid-filled follicles surrounded by thyroid hormone-secreting epithelial cells, 25% of the body's iodine
  • Increases the metabolism of body cells, and consumption of oxygen, energy production by tissues
  • Increases absorption of glucose by the intestine and its use by body cells
  • Increases basal metabolism
• Principal hormones produced by thyroid follicular glands: thyroxine; triiodothyronine; 65% thyroxine is iodine
• Located between follicles are parafollicular cells, which produce calcitonin to effect on calcium metabolism
• Parathyroid glands are small structures with an oval shape, on or below the posterior surface of the side lobes of the thyroid
• It functions to regulate the metabolism of calcium and phosphorus, while maintaining necessary ionized calcium
• The primary action is on the bone, mobilized calcium and phosphorus: control renal excretion of phosphates
• Hormones consist of parathormone, and calcitonin that assists with calcium metabolism
• Adrenal glands: description, functions, and hormones consists of an outer cortex and an inner medulla that function as different glands
• The adrenal medulla is from with the sympathetic nervous system and secrets hormones to mimic action of sympathetic nerves; it isn't essential for life
• The adrenal medulla secretes the hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline; adrenaline constitutes 80 to 90 percent of the glandular secretions
• The adrenal cortex produces hormones, including cortisol, corticosterone, and aldosterone as the major hormones; sex hormones produced in smaller quantities (androgens/estrogens)
• Glucocorticoids (cortisol and corticosterone) intervene in carbohydrate metabolism
• Mineralocorticoids: aldosterone is the principal hormone of the adrenal cortex, is related to the mineral metabolism and water equilibrium

Sex Glands

• The testicles initiate activity at puberty, produce testosterone, and its cells produce spermatazoids, while the ovaries initiate activity in puberty and hormones include androgens and progesterone to produce the eggs
• Pancreatic islets (Langerhans): described when the pancreas was discussed with the digestive organs
• 2 cell types (alpha, beta, delta, and pancreatic factor) make up the islets, distributed between the pancreatic acinar cells that secrete pancreatic digestive juice
• The beta-cells produce insulin, a chemical protein with three affects on carbohydrate metabolism which involves the increased rate of glucose metabolic rate, decreased blood-sugar level, and a rise in glycogen storage
• Alpha islet secrete glucagon to increase the blood concentration of glucose
• The thymus is a flat and bilobular organ inside the chest that shrinks during adulthood
• The thymus produces lymphocytes in early life to fight against bacteria and viruses
• The pineal gland has a description, functions, and hormones