Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the clinical significance of the aberrant obturator artery during inguinal hernia repair?
What is the clinical significance of the aberrant obturator artery during inguinal hernia repair?
- It can enhance blood supply to the inguinal area.
- It is a common landmark for nerve identification.
- It may lead to significant bleeding if not recognized. (correct)
- It is responsible for supplying the testicular artery.
Which structure is most superior in the sacral plexus?
Which structure is most superior in the sacral plexus?
- Inferior gluteal nerve
- Pudendal nerve
- Common peroneal nerve
- Superior gluteal nerve (correct)
Which embryological aspect is crucial in understanding facial anomalies such as cleft lip and palate?
Which embryological aspect is crucial in understanding facial anomalies such as cleft lip and palate?
- The inferior epigastric artery's role in angiogenesis.
- The structural development's relationship to the pharyngeal arches. (correct)
- The location of the oropharyngeal membrane during development.
- Essential connection to the thyroid gland development.
What describes the adult location and anomalies related to thyroid development?
What describes the adult location and anomalies related to thyroid development?
In craniofacial development, some structures are related to which apparatus but are not directly derived from it?
In craniofacial development, some structures are related to which apparatus but are not directly derived from it?
What condition is characterized by the abnormal attachment of the lingual frenulum?
What condition is characterized by the abnormal attachment of the lingual frenulum?
During thyroid development, where does the thyroid originate?
During thyroid development, where does the thyroid originate?
What structure can potentially maintain a connection between the thyroid and the oral cavity?
What structure can potentially maintain a connection between the thyroid and the oral cavity?
What could indicate an infected thyroglossal duct in a patient?
What could indicate an infected thyroglossal duct in a patient?
What critical factor is needed for the proper development of facial features, particularly those derived from the first pharyngeal arch?
What critical factor is needed for the proper development of facial features, particularly those derived from the first pharyngeal arch?
What structure is primarily formed from the medial nasal processes during facial development?
What structure is primarily formed from the medial nasal processes during facial development?
If the maxillary prominences do not develop properly, what might be affected?
If the maxillary prominences do not develop properly, what might be affected?
In the context of facial development, what is the role of neural crest cells in relation to the nasal processes?
In the context of facial development, what is the role of neural crest cells in relation to the nasal processes?
What embryonic structures are primarily involved in the development of the nasal bridge?
What embryonic structures are primarily involved in the development of the nasal bridge?
What can result from improper neural crest cell migration into the first pharyngeal arch?
What can result from improper neural crest cell migration into the first pharyngeal arch?
Which arch primarily contributes to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
Which arch primarily contributes to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
What nerve primarily provides sensory innervation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
What nerve primarily provides sensory innervation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue?
What structure develops between the anterior two-thirds and posterior one-third of the tongue?
What structure develops between the anterior two-thirds and posterior one-third of the tongue?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for taste sensation in the posterior one-third of the tongue?
Which cranial nerve is responsible for taste sensation in the posterior one-third of the tongue?
Where do the intrinsic muscles of the tongue originate from?
Where do the intrinsic muscles of the tongue originate from?
What type of sensory information is primarily transmitted by the lingual nerve?
What type of sensory information is primarily transmitted by the lingual nerve?
Which structure is indicated by the term 'terminal sulcus' on the tongue?
Which structure is indicated by the term 'terminal sulcus' on the tongue?
Which arch is responsible for the development of the epiglottic region of the tongue?
Which arch is responsible for the development of the epiglottic region of the tongue?
What is the role of the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve in tongue function?
What is the role of the chorda tympani branch of the facial nerve in tongue function?
What characteristic distinguishes the mucosa of the tongue from its musculature?
What characteristic distinguishes the mucosa of the tongue from its musculature?
What is the significance of the median sulcus on the tongue?
What is the significance of the median sulcus on the tongue?
What aspect of tongue function involves sensory innervation from the vagus nerve?
What aspect of tongue function involves sensory innervation from the vagus nerve?
Which type of sensory experience can be confused with taste during consumption of food?
Which type of sensory experience can be confused with taste during consumption of food?
Which structure is primarily responsible for providing presynaptic parasympathetic fibers in this pathway?
Which structure is primarily responsible for providing presynaptic parasympathetic fibers in this pathway?
Which of the following nerves contains postsynaptic parasympathetic and postsynaptic sympathetic fibers after the ciliary ganglion?
Which of the following nerves contains postsynaptic parasympathetic and postsynaptic sympathetic fibers after the ciliary ganglion?
What type of ganglia do sympathetic fibers synapse at before reaching their target muscles?
What type of ganglia do sympathetic fibers synapse at before reaching their target muscles?
Which nerve forms the vidian nerve when the deep petrosal nerve joins with the great petrosal nerve?
Which nerve forms the vidian nerve when the deep petrosal nerve joins with the great petrosal nerve?
How are the long ciliary nerves categorized in terms of their functions?
How are the long ciliary nerves categorized in terms of their functions?
What is the function of the nasolacrimal duct?
What is the function of the nasolacrimal duct?
Which of the following structures is primarily responsible for forming the secondary hard palate?
Which of the following structures is primarily responsible for forming the secondary hard palate?
What consequence can result from underdevelopment of the mandibular swellings?
What consequence can result from underdevelopment of the mandibular swellings?
How is the incisive foramen significant in adult anatomy?
How is the incisive foramen significant in adult anatomy?
What might occur if the medial nasal prominence does not meet the maxillary prominence correctly?
What might occur if the medial nasal prominence does not meet the maxillary prominence correctly?
Which of the following statements about palatine shelf development is correct?
Which of the following statements about palatine shelf development is correct?
What condition is characterized by a risk of aspiration due to improper palate formation?
What condition is characterized by a risk of aspiration due to improper palate formation?
What are the bones that form the roof of the orbit?
What are the bones that form the roof of the orbit?
Which cranial nerve palsies may be associated with issues in extraocular muscle movement?
Which cranial nerve palsies may be associated with issues in extraocular muscle movement?
Which space in the orbit is found between the lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid bone?
Which space in the orbit is found between the lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid bone?
What anatomical structure is commonly formed from the medial nasal prominence?
What anatomical structure is commonly formed from the medial nasal prominence?
What developmental window is critical for the formation of the palate?
What developmental window is critical for the formation of the palate?
What is a potential effect of fetal alcohol syndrome on facial development?
What is a potential effect of fetal alcohol syndrome on facial development?
Which nerve is associated with the incisive foramen in the palate?
Which nerve is associated with the incisive foramen in the palate?
What is the primary function of the superior rectus muscle?
What is the primary function of the superior rectus muscle?
Which cranial nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle?
Which cranial nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle?
When the eye is adducted, which muscle gains an advantage to depress the eye?
When the eye is adducted, which muscle gains an advantage to depress the eye?
In which scenario would a patient experience double vision when looking down?
In which scenario would a patient experience double vision when looking down?
What is the main role of the inferior oblique muscle?
What is the main role of the inferior oblique muscle?
Which eye movement does the superior oblique muscle primarily assist with?
Which eye movement does the superior oblique muscle primarily assist with?
What indicates a possible abducens nerve palsy when assessing eye movement?
What indicates a possible abducens nerve palsy when assessing eye movement?
What type of testing pattern can help assess extraocular muscle function?
What type of testing pattern can help assess extraocular muscle function?
Which extraocular muscles are primarily responsible for lateral rotation of the eye?
Which extraocular muscles are primarily responsible for lateral rotation of the eye?
What effect does changing the position of the globe have on the actions of the superior oblique muscle?
What effect does changing the position of the globe have on the actions of the superior oblique muscle?
What is the primary function of the orbicularis oculi muscle?
What is the primary function of the orbicularis oculi muscle?
Which muscle is responsible for lifting and retracting the upper eyelid?
Which muscle is responsible for lifting and retracting the upper eyelid?
Which nerve primarily innervates the levator palpebrae superioris?
Which nerve primarily innervates the levator palpebrae superioris?
What type of muscle fiber is found in the tarsal muscles?
What type of muscle fiber is found in the tarsal muscles?
What is the consequence of damage to the sympathetic nerves in the neck?
What is the consequence of damage to the sympathetic nerves in the neck?
Which muscles can cause adduction of the eye?
Which muscles can cause adduction of the eye?
What is the primary action of the superior oblique muscle?
What is the primary action of the superior oblique muscle?
The common tendinous ring is located where?
The common tendinous ring is located where?
What bones contribute to the formation of the medial wall of the orbit?
What bones contribute to the formation of the medial wall of the orbit?
Which nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle?
Which nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle?
Which structure passes through the optic canal in the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone?
Which structure passes through the optic canal in the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone?
What movement does the inferior oblique muscle primarily facilitate?
What movement does the inferior oblique muscle primarily facilitate?
What is the role of the lacrimal duct?
What is the role of the lacrimal duct?
How does the superior rectus muscle affect eye movement?
How does the superior rectus muscle affect eye movement?
What role do the rectus muscles have in eye movement?
What role do the rectus muscles have in eye movement?
What is the function of the orbicularis oculi muscle?
What is the function of the orbicularis oculi muscle?
What is indicated by the mnemonic LR 6, SO 4, AO 3?
What is indicated by the mnemonic LR 6, SO 4, AO 3?
Where does the optic chiasm lie in relation to the sphenoid bone?
Where does the optic chiasm lie in relation to the sphenoid bone?
Which muscle is involved in elevating the upper eyelid?
Which muscle is involved in elevating the upper eyelid?
In which anatomical position do the extraocular muscles function?
In which anatomical position do the extraocular muscles function?
What feature is characteristic of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone?
What feature is characteristic of the greater wing of the sphenoid bone?
Which of the following best describes the orientation of the bony orbit?
Which of the following best describes the orientation of the bony orbit?
What is the primary function of connective tissue in the orbit?
What is the primary function of connective tissue in the orbit?
What happens to the eye structures during craniofacial trauma?
What happens to the eye structures during craniofacial trauma?
Which part of the eyeball is referred to as the globe?
Which part of the eyeball is referred to as the globe?
The tarsal conjunctiva aids in which function related to the eye?
The tarsal conjunctiva aids in which function related to the eye?
What type of nerves innervate the superior tarsal muscle?
What type of nerves innervate the superior tarsal muscle?
What structure is mainly responsible for absorbing excess light in the eye?
What structure is mainly responsible for absorbing excess light in the eye?
What contributes to pupil constriction?
What contributes to pupil constriction?
What does ptosis indicate concerning the levator palpebrae superioris muscle?
What does ptosis indicate concerning the levator palpebrae superioris muscle?
Which nerve is responsible for innervating the lateral rectus muscle?
Which nerve is responsible for innervating the lateral rectus muscle?
What is the role of the ciliary ganglion in ocular innervation?
What is the role of the ciliary ganglion in ocular innervation?
How do sympathetic nerves reach the orbit?
How do sympathetic nerves reach the orbit?
What structure do sensory fibers of the lacrimal nerve originate from?
What structure do sensory fibers of the lacrimal nerve originate from?
Which cranial nerve contributes to tear production?
Which cranial nerve contributes to tear production?
Which extraocular muscle is innervated by the trochlear nerve?
Which extraocular muscle is innervated by the trochlear nerve?
Which of the following correctly describes the pathway of parasympathetic fibers to the eye?
Which of the following correctly describes the pathway of parasympathetic fibers to the eye?
Which nerve does NOT pass through the cavernous sinus?
Which nerve does NOT pass through the cavernous sinus?
What is the function of the nasociliary nerve?
What is the function of the nasociliary nerve?
What type of nerve fibers innervate the tarsal muscles?
What type of nerve fibers innervate the tarsal muscles?
Which nerve carries both somatic motor and parasympathetic functions?
Which nerve carries both somatic motor and parasympathetic functions?
What is the role of the pterygopalatine ganglion?
What is the role of the pterygopalatine ganglion?
Study Notes
Ligaments and Ureter
- Ligaments attach to the posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS)
- The ureter is at risk during a total hysterectomy
- The aberrant obturator artery contributes to bleeding after inguinal hernia repair, as this artery branches off the inferior epigastric artery
- The superior gluteal nerve is the most superior branch of the sacral plexus
- The testicular artery arises most proximally
Embryology of the Face
- The tongue, thyroid gland, and facial features develop from pharyngeal arches
- The development of pharyngeal arches is related to clinical anomalies like cleft lip and palate
Pharyngeal Arches
- The oropharyngeal membrane forms around pouch 1, composed of ectoderm and endoderm with no mesoderm
- The nasal placodes develop laterally and become the nose
- Arches are composed of ectoderm, mesoderm, and neural crest cells
- Clefts are formed by invaginations of the ectoderm
- Pouches are formed by evaginations of the endoderm
Tongue Development
- Tongue development originates in the region of the pharyngeal apparatus
- The pharyngeal apparatus contributes mucosa to the tongue
- The base of the oral cavity/pharyngeal apparatus is the location of tongue development
- Swellings associated with arches 1-4 and 6 contribute to the tongue mucosal lining
- The tongue musculature comes from a different origin, specifically the post-otic somites
- The anterior 2/3 of the tongue is innervated by the trigeminal and facial nerves
- The posterior 1/3 of the tongue is innervated by the glossopharyngeal nerve
- The epiglottic portion of the tongue is innervated by the vagus nerve
- The tongue musculature is innervated separately by the hypoglossal nerve (cranial nerve 12)
Thyroid Development
- The thyroid diverticulum develops between the arches 2 and 3
- The thyroid diverticulum originates from the floor of the primordial pharynx and migrates to the neck
- The thyroid diverticulum is originally endoderm.
- The thyroglossal duct connects the thyroid lobes to the oral cavity
- Abnormal thyroid migration can result in an infected thyroglossal duct, which can manifest as a midline neck mass
- The pyramidal lobe of the thyroid is a continuation of the thyroglossal duct
Facial Feature Development
- Facial features develop from the frontonasal process, maxillary swellings, and mandibular swellings
- Neural crest cell migration is crucial for the development of these structures
- Medial nasal processes contribute to the philtrum, columella, and primary palate
- Lateral nasal processes contribute to the ala of the nose
- The nasolacrimal duct develops from a groove between the lateral nasal prominence and the maxillary prominence
- Underdevelopment of the mandibular swellings can lead to micrognathia (smaller mandible)
- Facial features are susceptible to teratogenic insults like fetal alcohol syndrome
Palate Development
- The palate develops from the medial nasal prominences and maxillary prominences
- The primary palate develops from the medial nasal prominences
- The secondary palate develops from the palatine shelves of the maxillary prominences
- The incisive foramen is where the primary and secondary palates meet
- Cleft lip and palate are caused by improper fusion of the palatine shelves
Innervation of the Eye and Extraocular Muscles
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The orbit is formed by 7 bones: frontal, lacrimal, ethmoid, palatine, maxilla, zygomatic, and sphenoid
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The orbit is a cone-shaped cavity that houses the eye and its associated structures
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The optic nerve passes through the optic canal
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The superior orbital fissure is a large opening in the lateral wall of the orbit
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The inferior orbital fissure is a smaller opening in the floor of the orbit
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There are 6 extraocular muscles that control eye movement:
- Superior rectus (INN: CN III, oculomotor)
- Inferior rectus (INN: CN III)
- Medial rectus (INN: CN III)
- Lateral rectus (INN: CN VI, abducens)
- Superior oblique (INN: CN IV, trochlear)
- Inferior oblique (INN: CN III)
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The extraocular muscles are tested using the double H test and other eye movement tests
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Palsy of the 3rd, 4th, or 6th cranial nerves can affect eye movement### Orbit Anatomy
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Lacrimal gland located on the medial inferior side of the eye, extraocular muscles are superficial
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Frontal bone forms the roof of the orbit, sphenoid bone forms the lateral wall
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Greater wing of the sphenoid bone contributes to the pterion, a fracture hotspot
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Lesser wing of the sphenoid bone forms the apex of the orbit, housing the optic canal
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Optic chiasm, pituitary gland, and sella turcica reside near the lesser wing of the sphenoid bone
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Supraorbital fissure separates the lesser and greater wings of the sphenoid bone
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Zygomatic bone forms the anterolateral side of the orbit, maxilla forms the medial side of the orbital floor
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Orbital floor fractures can lead to herniation and entrapment of orbital structures
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Lacrimal bone forms the nasolacrimal duct, medial orbit wall connects to the lateral nose
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Nasolacrimal duct carries tears to the nasal cavity for recycling
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Ethmoid bone contributes to the nasal cavity, cribriform plate is porous and allows for passage of olfactory nerves
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Palatine bone situated at the back of the orbit contributes to the soft palate
Connective Tissue and Eyelid Movement
- Orbit is angled, medial walls are parallel and lateral walls meet at 90 degrees
- Optic axis runs parallel to the medial border, fovea is at the junction of medial and lateral walls
- Optic nerve sits medial to the fovea
- Globe axis defines the axis of rotation movements
- Elevation and depression of the eye are defined by the equator of the globe
- Abduction/adduction is defined by the transverse plane
- Globe remains relatively stable due to fibrous tissue network surrounding the orbit, fascial layers stabilize eye position
Fibrous Connections
- Ocular fat fills the spaces between fibrous structures, acts as a cushion protecting the eyeball
- Fibrous connections hold muscles in place and facilitate movement along the axes of the eye
- Deeper network of fibrous tissue located close to the globe provides additional stability
- Fracture of the orbital floor can lead to herniation of structures through the opening
Eyelid Movement
- Eyelids retract and protract (open and close)
- Tarsal plates located on superior and inferior eyelids, tarsal conjunctiva contains the punctum for tears
- Orbicularis oculi muscle responsible for eyelid closure, consists of orbital and palpebral parts
- Orbital septum, lateral and medial palpebral ligament, and lacrimal duct tissues form connective tissue
- Levator palpebrae superioris muscle retracts the upper eyelid
- Superior tarsal muscle retracts the eyelid and is innervated by the sympathetic nervous system
- Inferior tarsal muscle also retracts the eyelid and is innervated by the sympathetic nervous system
- Orbicularis oculi fibers control blinking and forceful closure of the eye
Extraocular Eye Muscles
- Rectus muscles originate from a common tendinous ring, annulus of Zinn, in the apex of the orbit
- Superior/medial/inferior/lateral rectus muscles insert directly onto the sclera
- Superior oblique muscle passes through the trochlea and inserts on the upper back quadrant of the sclera
- Inferior oblique muscle arises anteriorly and inserts on the lower back quadrant of the sclera
- Annulus of Zinn divides the orbit into compartments, all 4 rectus muscles pass through in a cone shape
- Nerves supplying the orbit enter through the supraorbital fissure or the optic canal
- Autonomic nerves travel through the infraorbital fissure
Extraconal Space
- Sensory branches from the ophthalmic nerve pass to the lacrimal gland, frontal nerve, and superior oblique
- Trochlear nerve innervates the superior oblique muscle
Intraconal Space
- Optic nerve enclosed in dura, ophthalmic artery
- Autonomic nerves from the superior cervical ganglion travel up the internal carotid
- Parasympathetic nerves come from the Edinger-Westphal (EW) nucleus alongside the oculomotor nerve
- Ciliary ganglion located before the oculomotor nerve splits
- Superior oculomotor nerve innervates the superior rectus and levator palpebrae
- Inferior oculomotor nerve innervates the inferior oblique, inferior rectus, and medial rectus muscles
- Abducens nerve innervates the lateral rectus muscle
- LR6 (Lateral Rectus), SO4 (Superior Oblique), AO3 (All Others) - mnemonic for cranial nerve innervation
Extraocular Muscle Actions
- All muscles are referenced from anatomical position, gazing forward
- Superior rectus elevates, adducts, and medially rotates the eye
- Inferior rectus depresses, adducts, and laterally rotates the eye
- Medial rectus adducts the eye
- Lateral rectus abducts the eye
- Oblique muscles insert at an angle and produce secondary and tertiary movements
- Superior oblique primarily depresses, abducts, and medially rotates the eye (down and out)
- Inferior oblique primarily elevates, abducts, and laterally rotates the eye (up and in)
Double H Testing Pattern
- Superior oblique and inferior rectus both depress the eye
- Double H testing pattern isolates muscle function by placing the eye in a position that emphasizes a specific action
- Medial gaze tests the superior oblique for depression
- Abducted gaze tests the inferior rectus for depression
- Adducted gaze tests the superior oblique for depression
- Recti muscles primarily act laterally, while obliques primarily act medially
Eye Movements and Cranial Nerve Function
- Double vision when looking down can indicate damage to the inferior rectus or superior oblique
- Double H testing pattern can confirm if a nerve palsy is present
- Double vision when looking right can indicate an abducens nerve palsy
- Ptosis and pupil dilation with downward and outward gaze can indicate an oculomotor nerve palsy
Extraocular Eye Movement Defects
- Extraocular movement defects can indicate problems in the brainstem
- Understanding extraocular muscle actions is crucial for identifying and diagnosing cranial nerve palsies
- Damage to individual nerves results in specific muscle dysfunction and affects eye movements.
Oculomotor Nerve Palsy
- Can cause ptosis due to lack of levator palpebrae superioris activation
- Pupil dilation due to lack of sphincter pupillae contraction
- Only superior oblique and lateral rectus muscles remain functional
- Eye can't look medially, but can look laterally
- Lateral rectus muscle innervated by abducens nerve
- Superior oblique muscle innervated by trochlear nerve
Innervation of the Orbit
- Internal carotid artery carries sympathetic nerves from the sympathetic trunk to the orbit
- Sympathetic nerves dilate the pupil (dilator pupillae)
- Parasympathetic nerves constrict the pupil (sphincter pupillae)
- Somatic motor nerves control extraocular muscles, LR6, SO4, AO3
- Oculomotor nerve contains both somatic motor and parasympathetic fibers
- Somatic motor nerves come from the oculomotor nucleus
- Parasympathetic nerves come from the Edinger Westphal nucleus
Trochlear Nerve
- Innervates the superior oblique muscle
- Provides somatic motor function
- Passes through superior orbital fissure
- Intraconal path
- Nucleus located in the brainstem
Abducens Nerve
- Innervates the lateral rectus muscle
- Provides somatic motor function
- Passes through superior orbital fissure
- Intraconal path
- Nucleus located in the brainstem
- Travels through the cavernous sinus
Oculomotor Nerve
- Somatic motor component arises from the oculomotor nucleus
- Provides motor innervation to four extraocular muscles: superior rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, inferior oblique
- Levator palpebrae superioris muscle is also innervated by its superior branch
- Parasympathetic component arises from the Edinger Westphal nucleus
- Supplies parasympathetic innervation to the ciliary muscle and sphincter pupillae
Parasympathetic Innervation of the Orbit
- Parasympathetic nerves from the Edinger Westphal nucleus travel through the superior orbital fissure
- They do not synapse on the target organ, but rather at the ciliary ganglion
- Postsynaptic parasympathetic nerves from the ciliary ganglion innervate the ciliary muscle and sphincter pupillae
Short Ciliary Nerves
- Carry postsynaptic parasympathetic fibers from the ciliary ganglion
- Innervate the ciliary muscle and sphincter pupillae
Facial Nerve (Cranial Nerve VII)
- Provides parasympathetic innervation to the lacrimal gland
- Presynaptic fibers originate from the superior salivatory nucleus
- Travel as the greater petrosal nerve
- Synapse at the pterygopalatine ganglion
- Postsynaptic fibers travel to the lacrimal gland
Sympathetic Innervation of the Orbit
- Originate from the superior cervical ganglion, a part of the sympathetic trunk
- Travel along the internal carotid artery forming a periarterial plexus
- Innervate the dilator pupillae muscle, tarsal muscles, and lacrimal gland
Lacrimal Nerve
- Formed by a combination of:
- Sensory fibers from the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V)
- Presynaptic parasympathetic fibers from the greater petrosal nerve (cranial nerve VII)
- Postsynaptic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion (sympathetic trunk)
- Innervates the lacrimal gland
Nasociliary Nerve
- Formed by a combination of:
- Sensory fibers from the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V)
- Postsynaptic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion (sympathetic trunk)
- Innervates the superior tarsal muscle
Long Ciliary Nerves
- Carry postsynaptic sympathetic fibers from the superior cervical ganglion
- They pass through the ciliary ganglion without synapsing
- Innervate the ciliary muscle and inferior tarsal muscle
- Aka 'Sympathetic root of the ciliary ganglion'
Summary of Ganglia
- Pterygopalatine ganglion: Synapse for presynaptic parasympathetic fibers from the greater petrosal nerve
- Ciliary ganglion: Synapse for presynaptic parasympathetic fibers from the Edinger-Westphal nucleus
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Description
Test your knowledge on clinical anatomy and embryological development with this quiz. Explore topics such as the aberrant obturator artery and its significance in surgical procedures. Delve into craniofacial development and related anomalies to deepen your understanding of these critical concepts.
