Analog Instruments: Measurement Resolution
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Questions and Answers

What can social media be if combined with some internet tools?

  • A platform for bullying
  • A big boon for us (correct)
  • A way to spread misinformation
  • A threat to society

    • What is one of the demerits of social media?

  • Improving mental health
  • Creating jobs
  • Making new connections
  • Oversharing problem (correct)

    • What is a result of cyberbullying on social media?

  • New connections are formed
  • Entrepreneurs are inspired
  • Toxicity is created (correct)
  • Mental health improves

    • What can happen if intimate videos are released on the internet?

    <p>One's reputation is worsened</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is lacking in social media connections?

    <p>Basic essence of mental and emotional connection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of people on social media?

    <p>Not everyone is what they show on the internet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about everything in life?

    <p>Everything has both merits and demerits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the comparison the author makes to describe everything?

    <p>A coin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about humans?

    <p>We are perfect with both good and bad things</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's advice about social media?

    <p>Use it responsibly</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of creating an online profile on LinkedIn?

    <p>To connect with amazing entrepreneurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of oversharing on social media platforms?

    <p>Privacy problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a threat posed by social media platforms?

    <p>Spread of misinformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's perspective on social media?

    <p>It has both positive and negative aspects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of blackmailing on social media platforms?

    <p>Eroded reputation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about the nature of everything in life?

    <p>Everything has both good and bad aspects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's advice about how to navigate social media?

    <p>Use social media responsibly, being aware of its merits and demerits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of social media connections?

    <p>They are superficial and lack emotional connection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about human nature?

    <p>Humans have both good and bad qualities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's main concern about social media?

    <p>It is a threat to reputation due to oversharing and misinformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of creating an online profile on LinkedIn?

    <p>To connect with entrepreneurs and get a job</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a consequence of people's tendency to overshare on social media platforms?

    <p>Privacy problems and potential blackmailing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's perspective on the nature of social media?

    <p>It has both merits and demerits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about human nature in the context of social media?

    <p>Humans have both good and bad qualities, and it's up to them to show their true nature on social media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main idea behind the author's conclusion about everything in life?

    <p>Everything has double sides, with both merits and demerits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's warning about social media connections?

    <p>They lack the basic essence of mental and emotional connection between people</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about how to navigate the environment of social media?

    <p>It's up to the individual to show their true nature on social media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's comparison to describe the nature of everything in life?

    <p>A coin with two sides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's main concern about social media platforms?

    <p>That they can be used for both good and bad purposes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's message about the importance of being aware of the negative aspects of social media?

    <p>We should try to withstand the negative environment of social media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of indicating instruments?

    <p>To indicate the magnitude of a quantity being measured</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of damping torque in indicating instruments?

    <p>To reduce the number of oscillations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the classification of instruments based on the kind of current that can be measured?

    <p>Direct current, alternating current, and direct and alternating current</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of comparison instruments?

    <p>They compare the unknown quantity with a standard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of integrating instruments?

    <p>To totalize events over a specified period of time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of damping torque in analogue instruments?

    <p>To damp or reduce the number of oscillations of the pointer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of effect is used in moving coil and moving iron instruments to produce deflecting torque?

    <p>Magnetic effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the deflecting system in an electrical instrument?

    <p>To convert electrical energy into mechanical force</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the requirement for the moving system to come to rest in an acceptable amount of time?

    <p>Damping torque is always required</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle behind the functioning of energy meters?

    <p>Electromagnetic induction effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of analog meters over digital voltmeters?

    <p>Analog needle movement gives a better idea of order of magnitude and trends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a shunt in an analog ammeter?

    <p>To connect the moving coil and the instrument for higher current ranges</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the sensitivity of an analog ammeter?

    <p>The amount of current required for full-scale deflection of the pointer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an analog ammeter?

    <p>To measure current flow in amperes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using a taut-band meter over a d'Arsonval meter?

    <p>Taut-band meters mitigate friction and wear problems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of a 12-bit A/D converter in a pressure transmitter?

    <p>It has a limited resolution of 1 part in 4096</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key difference between resolution and accuracy in instrument measurements?

    <p>Resolution refers to the ability to detect changes, while accuracy refers to the absolute value</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of analog instruments?

    <p>Their output or display is a continuous function of time and bears a constant relation to its input</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle of operation of electrostatic instruments?

    <p>The force of attraction or repulsion between two charged bodies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How can analog instruments be classified?

    <p>According to the quantity they measure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of controlling torque in measuring instruments?

    <p>To produce an equal torque in opposite direction to deflecting torque</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of moving-coil galvanometers in measuring instruments?

    <p>They have superior sensitivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why are smart transmitters preferred in certain applications?

    <p>They eliminate A/D conversion issues and provide digital interfaces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a thermocouple in hotwire instruments?

    <p>To convert the heat produced into emf</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it desirable to have a low torque-to-weight ratio in measuring instruments?

    <p>To reduce the effect of frictional torque</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most significant consequence of cyberbullying on social media?

    <p>Mental health issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main drawback of online connections on social media?

    <p>Lack of emotional connection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of having an online profile on LinkedIn?

    <p>Networking opportunities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's central message about everything in life?

    <p>Everything has both merits and demerits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary threat posed by social media platforms?

    <p>Spread of misinformation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's advice to users of social media?

    <p>Be cautious and aware of the negative aspects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's perspective on human nature?

    <p>Humans have both good and bad qualities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of oversharing on social media platforms?

    <p>Privacy issues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the author's comparison to describe everything in life?

    <p>A coin with two sides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary demerit of social media?

    <p>Oversharing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the fixed coil in an electrodynamic type instrument?

    <p>To provide a uniform magnetic field at the center</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is eddy current damping not used in electrodynamic instruments?

    <p>Because it would introduce inaccuracy due to the weak magnetic field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the magnetic shielding arrangement in electrodynamic type instruments?

    <p>To reduce the effect of external magnetic fields</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the moving coil in an electrodynamic type instrument?

    <p>To convert the actuating quantity into a readable value on the scale</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is a non-magnetic metallic former used for the moving coil in electrodynamic type instruments?

    <p>To prevent eddy current generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a wattmeter?

    <p>To measure electric power given to or developed by an electrical circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between an electrodynamometer wattmeter and an induction wattmeter?

    <p>One measures DC and AC power, while the other measures only AC power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of an energy meter?

    <p>To measure electric energy consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of a 3-phase meter?

    <p>Commercial and industrial applications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using a 3-phase meter?

    <p>It helps in distributing the load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many main parts does an energy meter have?

    <p>Four</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the current coil in a wattmeter?

    <p>To measure current in an electrical circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is it recommended to use a 3-phase meter?

    <p>When the load requirement is more than 5 KW to 7 KW</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a 3-phase system comprised of?

    <p>Three-phase conductors and a neutral conductor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main purpose of a 3-phase meter?

    <p>To measure 3-phase motor amps calculation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of an electric energy meter?

    <p>To accurately quantify the electricity usage for billing purposes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of the driving system in an electric energy meter?

    <p>Electromagnet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement for electrical energy consumption?

    <p>Kilowatt-hours (kWh)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the copper band on the centre limb of the magnet?

    <p>To align the flux produced by the shunt magnet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle behind the working of an electric energy meter?

    <p>Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of a current coil in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To measure the current flowing through the circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a voltage coil in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To produce a magnetic field whose magnitude is proportional to the voltage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the permanent magnet in the braking system of an electric energy meter?

    <p>To reduce the rotation of the aluminium disc</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of integrating the power over time in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To determine the total energy consumption over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement of the power consumption in an electric energy meter?

    <p>Kilowatt hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of a single-phase energy meter?

    <p>To measure electrical energy consumption in household electricity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    When is a three-phase meter required in India?

    <p>When the load is higher than 5 KW or 7 KW</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the total number of slots in a three-phase energy meter?

    <p>8</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the phase wires connected to the three-phase energy meter?

    <p>The 1st phase wire is connected to the 1st slot, the 2nd phase wire is connected to the 3rd slot, and the 3rd phase wire is connected to the 5th slot</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between a three-phase, three-wire meter and a three-phase, four-wire meter?

    <p>One uses a permanent horseshoe magnet and the other uses three coils and three aluminum discs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a single-phase power circuit to be fully resistive in nature?

    <p>The phase angle between voltage and current is 0 degrees</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of reactive power?

    <p>VAR</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to the power consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit?

    <p>Active Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for reactive power per phase?

    <p>Q = VL IL cos Φ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relation between VR, VY, VB, and VL in a star-connected circuit?

    <p>VR = VY = VB = VL = √3VP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum number of CTs required to accurately meter a three-phase, four-wire wye service?

    <p>Three</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement for reactive power?

    <p>Volt-Ampere Reactive (VAR)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a single-phase varmeter?

    <p>To measure reactive power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How many wattmeters are required to measure reactive power in a three-phase balanced load?

    <p>One</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phase angle between voltage and current in a circuit with inductance and capacitance?

    <p>90°</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the sum of the line currents in a 3-phase system?

    <p>Zero</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of a 3-phase system over a single-phase system?

    <p>Higher efficiency and minimum losses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the neutral point in a star-connected 3-phase system?

    <p>To pass the unbalanced current to the earth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a 3-phase load to be balanced?

    <p>If the three-phase angles are equal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of Blondel's Theorem?

    <p>To decide the type of metering installation needed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between VR, VY, VB, and VL in a star connected load?

    <p>VR = VY = VB = VL</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for reactive power per phase in a star connected load?

    <p>Q = VL IL cos Φ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a single phase power circuit to be fully resistive in nature?

    <p>φ = 0</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of p being always positive in a resistive circuit?

    <p>Energy is flowing from source to load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to the power consumed due to resistive effect of an electrical circuit?

    <p>Active Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between cos²ωt and p in a resistive circuit?

    <p>cos²ωt cannot be greater than 1, hence p cannot be negative</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of energy flow in a resistive circuit?

    <p>From source to load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the rate of energy consumption by a load?

    <p>Active Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a circuit to be considered fully resistive?

    <p>φ = 0</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to the power consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit?

    <p>Resistive Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the coil connected in parallel with the circuit in a wattmeter?

    <p>To measure voltage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of an energy meter?

    <p>To measure energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between an electrodynamometer wattmeter and an induction wattmeter?

    <p>One measures AC power and the other measures both AC and DC power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two coils in a wattmeter connected in?

    <p>Series and parallel with the circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of energy meters?

    <p>They are more accurate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of a current coil in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To produce a magnetic field proportional to the current</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of a voltage coil in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To produce a magnetic field proportional to the voltage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of measurement for electrical energy consumption in an electric energy meter?

    <p>Kilowatt-hours (kWh)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of power calculation in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To display the power consumed by the load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of energy integration in an electric energy meter?

    <p>To integrate power over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of a 3-phase energy meter?

    <p>To monitor real-time power consumption data in industrial applications</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of three-phase power systems?

    <p>It has three phase conductors and one neutral conductor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it not recommended to use a 3-phase energy meter for low load consumption?

    <p>Because the meter rent for a 3-phase energy meter is higher than the meter rent for a single-phase energy meter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of using a 3-phase energy meter in industrial applications?

    <p>It provides accurate real-time power consumption data for 3-phase motor amps calculation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the requirement for using a 3-phase energy meter?

    <p>The load requirement should be more than 5 KW to 7 KW</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the copper band in the driving system of an energy meter?

    <p>To align the flux produced by the shunt magnet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the permanent magnet in the braking system of an energy meter?

    <p>To reduce the rotation of the aluminium disc</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle behind the working of an electric energy meter?

    <p>Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the pressure coil in the shunt electromagnet of an energy meter?

    <p>To create a magnetic field due to the supply voltage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the number of rotations of the aluminium disc and the power consumption of the load?

    <p>The number of rotations is directly proportional to the power consumption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of a three-phase system over a single-phase system?

    <p>Fewer conductors and higher efficiency</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the neutral point in a star-connected three-phase system?

    <p>To balance the unbalanced current and pass it to the earth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a three-phase load to be considered balanced?

    <p>The phases and the line voltages are equal in magnitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the minimum number of elements required in a watthour meter to accurately meter a three-phase four-wire service according to Blondel's Theorem?

    <p>Three</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the difference between the voltage between a single phase and the neutral and the voltage between two phases in a star-connected three-phase system?

    <p>The voltage between a single phase and the neutral is 230V, and the voltage between two phases is 440V</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical load requirement for a household to need a 3-phase energy meter in India?

    <p>5 KW or 7 KW</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the total number of slots in a 3-phase energy meter?

    <p>8</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How are the phase wires connected to the 3-phase energy meter and switchboard?

    <p>The 1st phase wire connects to the 1st slot, the 2nd phase wire to the 3rd slot, and the 3rd phase wire to the 5th slot.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the neutral wire in a 3-phase energy meter?

    <p>To phase in and out of the meter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of a 3-phase, three-wire meter?

    <p>It uses a permanent horseshoe magnet.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition for a single-phase power circuit to be fully resistive in nature?

    <p>The phase angle between voltage and current is 0 degrees.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the unit of reactive power in a three-phase circuit?

    <p>VAr</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between VL and VP in a star-connected circuit?

    <p>VL is equal to √3VP</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the direction of energy flow in a circuit with active power?

    <p>From source to load</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name given to the power consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit?

    <p>Active Power</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the necessary condition for accurately metering a three-phase, four-wire wye service according to Blondel's Theorem?

    <p>Having one less CT than the number of wires in the service</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of measuring reactive power in electrical circuits?

    <p>To determine the nature of the load and power factor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of a single-phase varmeter that enables it to measure reactive power?

    <p>Highly inductive reactance in the voltage coil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using a single wattmeter to measure reactive power in a three-phase balanced load?

    <p>It is only required to be inserted in one phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating reactive power in a circuit?

    <p>Q = VI sin Φ</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments are devices that measure physical quantities, such as pressure, voltage, and current, and display the output in a continuous signal.
    • These instruments are extensively used in various applications, including engineering, physics, and chemistry.

    Classification of Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments can be classified into three types based on their function:
      • Indicating instruments: These instruments measure the magnitude of a quantity and display the output using a dial and a pointer. Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters.
      • Recording instruments: These instruments record the variations of a quantity over a specific period. Examples include recording voltmeters and oscilloscopes.
      • Integrating instruments: These instruments totalize events over a specific period. Examples include ampere-hour meters and watt-hour meters.

    Deflection, Controlling, and Damping Torques

    • Deflection torque: The torque required to deflect the pointer of an instrument to a specific position. It is produced by the deflecting system.
    • Controlling torque: The torque that opposes the deflection torque and brings the pointer back to its zero position. It is produced by the controlling system.
    • Damping torque: The torque that reduces the oscillations of the pointer and helps it to settle quickly. It is produced by the damping system.

    Effects Used to Produce Deflecting Torque

    • Magnetic effect: Used in most ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. It produces a deflecting torque by using a magnetic field.
    • Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in voltmeters, ammeters, and energy meters. It produces a deflecting torque by using electromagnetic induction.
    • Heating effect: Used in thermal instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using the heat generated by the current.
    • Chemical effect: Used in integrating instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using a chemical reaction.
    • Electrostatic effect: Used in electrostatic instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using an electrostatic field.

    Torque to Weight Ratio (T/W Ratio)

    • The T/W ratio is an important factor in instrument design. It is the ratio of the deflecting torque to the frictional torque.
    • A higher T/W ratio indicates a more sensitive instrument.

    Analog Voltmeters and Ammeters

    • Analog voltmeters measure voltage and display the output using a needle.
    • Analog ammeters measure current and display the output using a needle.
    • Both types of instruments use a moving coil or a moving iron to measure the quantity.

    Comparison with Digital Instruments

    • Analog instruments have some advantages over digital instruments, such as:
      • Providing a better idea of the order of magnitude and trends.
      • Not requiring a power supply beyond the test current source.
    • However, digital instruments have generally superseded analog instruments due to their superior accuracy and precision.

    Scale and Range

    • Analog instruments have a scale and range that is determined by the instrument's design.

    • The scale and range can be altered by providing a shunt coil or a multiplier.### Merits and Demerits

    • Merits refer to favorable circumstances, means, or opportunities that contribute to the success of a desired end.

    • Merits also describe the respectable qualities of a thing that make it worthy of respect and praise.

    Demerits

    • Demerits refer to the marks or characteristics of a thing that are deficient or misconduct.
    • Demerits hamper the respect a thing has gained through its merits.

    Difference between Merits and Demerits

    • Merits are favorable to success, while demerits are unfavorable and have adverse effects.
    • Merits refer to advantages or favorable significance, while demerits refer to unfavorable points.

    Importance of Considering Merits and Demerits

    • When evaluating a thing, it is essential to consider both merits and demerits to make an informed decision.

    Examples of Merits and Demerits

    Merits of Social Media

    • Social media provides a wide social and mental platform for expression.
    • It helps small businesses with marketing strategies.
    • Social media is beneficial for educational purposes, especially during pandemic times.
    • It can aid in job searches and provide opportunities to connect with entrepreneurs.
    • Online profiles on LinkedIn help individuals connect with notable entrepreneurs.

    Demerits of Social Media

    • Oversharing on social media can lead to privacy problems.
    • Cyberbullying is a significant disadvantage of social media.
    • Social media platforms can spread misinformation.
    • Blackmailing and releasing intimate videos on social media can harm reputations.
    • Social media lacks the basic essence of mental and emotional connections between people.
    • Not everyone is genuine on social media platforms, and it can be misleading.

    Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments are devices that measure physical quantities, such as pressure, voltage, and current, and display the output in a continuous signal.
    • These instruments are extensively used in various applications, including engineering, physics, and chemistry.

    Classification of Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments can be classified into three types based on their function:
      • Indicating instruments: These instruments measure the magnitude of a quantity and display the output using a dial and a pointer. Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters.
      • Recording instruments: These instruments record the variations of a quantity over a specific period. Examples include recording voltmeters and oscilloscopes.
      • Integrating instruments: These instruments totalize events over a specific period. Examples include ampere-hour meters and watt-hour meters.

    Deflection, Controlling, and Damping Torques

    • Deflection torque: The torque required to deflect the pointer of an instrument to a specific position. It is produced by the deflecting system.
    • Controlling torque: The torque that opposes the deflection torque and brings the pointer back to its zero position. It is produced by the controlling system.
    • Damping torque: The torque that reduces the oscillations of the pointer and helps it to settle quickly. It is produced by the damping system.

    Effects Used to Produce Deflecting Torque

    • Magnetic effect: Used in most ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. It produces a deflecting torque by using a magnetic field.
    • Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in voltmeters, ammeters, and energy meters. It produces a deflecting torque by using electromagnetic induction.
    • Heating effect: Used in thermal instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using the heat generated by the current.
    • Chemical effect: Used in integrating instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using a chemical reaction.
    • Electrostatic effect: Used in electrostatic instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using an electrostatic field.

    Torque to Weight Ratio (T/W Ratio)

    • The T/W ratio is an important factor in instrument design. It is the ratio of the deflecting torque to the frictional torque.
    • A higher T/W ratio indicates a more sensitive instrument.

    Analog Voltmeters and Ammeters

    • Analog voltmeters measure voltage and display the output using a needle.
    • Analog ammeters measure current and display the output using a needle.
    • Both types of instruments use a moving coil or a moving iron to measure the quantity.

    Comparison with Digital Instruments

    • Analog instruments have some advantages over digital instruments, such as:
      • Providing a better idea of the order of magnitude and trends.
      • Not requiring a power supply beyond the test current source.
    • However, digital instruments have generally superseded analog instruments due to their superior accuracy and precision.

    Scale and Range

    • Analog instruments have a scale and range that is determined by the instrument's design.

    • The scale and range can be altered by providing a shunt coil or a multiplier.### Merits and Demerits

    • Merits refer to favorable circumstances, means, or opportunities that contribute to the success of a desired end.

    • Merits also describe the respectable qualities of a thing that make it worthy of respect and praise.

    Demerits

    • Demerits refer to the marks or characteristics of a thing that are deficient or misconduct.
    • Demerits hamper the respect a thing has gained through its merits.

    Difference between Merits and Demerits

    • Merits are favorable to success, while demerits are unfavorable and have adverse effects.
    • Merits refer to advantages or favorable significance, while demerits refer to unfavorable points.

    Importance of Considering Merits and Demerits

    • When evaluating a thing, it is essential to consider both merits and demerits to make an informed decision.

    Examples of Merits and Demerits

    Merits of Social Media

    • Social media provides a wide social and mental platform for expression.
    • It helps small businesses with marketing strategies.
    • Social media is beneficial for educational purposes, especially during pandemic times.
    • It can aid in job searches and provide opportunities to connect with entrepreneurs.
    • Online profiles on LinkedIn help individuals connect with notable entrepreneurs.

    Demerits of Social Media

    • Oversharing on social media can lead to privacy problems.
    • Cyberbullying is a significant disadvantage of social media.
    • Social media platforms can spread misinformation.
    • Blackmailing and releasing intimate videos on social media can harm reputations.
    • Social media lacks the basic essence of mental and emotional connections between people.
    • Not everyone is genuine on social media platforms, and it can be misleading.

    Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments are devices that measure physical quantities, such as pressure, voltage, and current, and display the output in a continuous signal.
    • These instruments are extensively used in various applications, including engineering, physics, and chemistry.

    Classification of Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments can be classified into three types based on their function:
      • Indicating instruments: These instruments measure the magnitude of a quantity and display the output using a dial and a pointer. Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters.
      • Recording instruments: These instruments record the variations of a quantity over a specific period. Examples include recording voltmeters and oscilloscopes.
      • Integrating instruments: These instruments totalize events over a specific period. Examples include ampere-hour meters and watt-hour meters.

    Deflection, Controlling, and Damping Torques

    • Deflection torque: The torque required to deflect the pointer of an instrument to a specific position. It is produced by the deflecting system.
    • Controlling torque: The torque that opposes the deflection torque and brings the pointer back to its zero position. It is produced by the controlling system.
    • Damping torque: The torque that reduces the oscillations of the pointer and helps it to settle quickly. It is produced by the damping system.

    Effects Used to Produce Deflecting Torque

    • Magnetic effect: Used in most ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. It produces a deflecting torque by using a magnetic field.
    • Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in voltmeters, ammeters, and energy meters. It produces a deflecting torque by using electromagnetic induction.
    • Heating effect: Used in thermal instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using the heat generated by the current.
    • Chemical effect: Used in integrating instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using a chemical reaction.
    • Electrostatic effect: Used in electrostatic instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using an electrostatic field.

    Torque to Weight Ratio (T/W Ratio)

    • The T/W ratio is an important factor in instrument design. It is the ratio of the deflecting torque to the frictional torque.
    • A higher T/W ratio indicates a more sensitive instrument.

    Analog Voltmeters and Ammeters

    • Analog voltmeters measure voltage and display the output using a needle.
    • Analog ammeters measure current and display the output using a needle.
    • Both types of instruments use a moving coil or a moving iron to measure the quantity.

    Comparison with Digital Instruments

    • Analog instruments have some advantages over digital instruments, such as:
      • Providing a better idea of the order of magnitude and trends.
      • Not requiring a power supply beyond the test current source.
    • However, digital instruments have generally superseded analog instruments due to their superior accuracy and precision.

    Scale and Range

    • Analog instruments have a scale and range that is determined by the instrument's design.

    • The scale and range can be altered by providing a shunt coil or a multiplier.### Merits and Demerits

    • Merits refer to favorable circumstances, means, or opportunities that contribute to the success of a desired end.

    • Merits also describe the respectable qualities of a thing that make it worthy of respect and praise.

    Demerits

    • Demerits refer to the marks or characteristics of a thing that are deficient or misconduct.
    • Demerits hamper the respect a thing has gained through its merits.

    Difference between Merits and Demerits

    • Merits are favorable to success, while demerits are unfavorable and have adverse effects.
    • Merits refer to advantages or favorable significance, while demerits refer to unfavorable points.

    Importance of Considering Merits and Demerits

    • When evaluating a thing, it is essential to consider both merits and demerits to make an informed decision.

    Examples of Merits and Demerits

    Merits of Social Media

    • Social media provides a wide social and mental platform for expression.
    • It helps small businesses with marketing strategies.
    • Social media is beneficial for educational purposes, especially during pandemic times.
    • It can aid in job searches and provide opportunities to connect with entrepreneurs.
    • Online profiles on LinkedIn help individuals connect with notable entrepreneurs.

    Demerits of Social Media

    • Oversharing on social media can lead to privacy problems.
    • Cyberbullying is a significant disadvantage of social media.
    • Social media platforms can spread misinformation.
    • Blackmailing and releasing intimate videos on social media can harm reputations.
    • Social media lacks the basic essence of mental and emotional connections between people.
    • Not everyone is genuine on social media platforms, and it can be misleading.

    Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments are devices that measure physical quantities, such as pressure, voltage, and current, and display the output in a continuous signal.
    • These instruments are extensively used in various applications, including engineering, physics, and chemistry.

    Classification of Analog Instruments

    • Analog instruments can be classified into three types based on their function:
      • Indicating instruments: These instruments measure the magnitude of a quantity and display the output using a dial and a pointer. Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and wattmeters.
      • Recording instruments: These instruments record the variations of a quantity over a specific period. Examples include recording voltmeters and oscilloscopes.
      • Integrating instruments: These instruments totalize events over a specific period. Examples include ampere-hour meters and watt-hour meters.

    Deflection, Controlling, and Damping Torques

    • Deflection torque: The torque required to deflect the pointer of an instrument to a specific position. It is produced by the deflecting system.
    • Controlling torque: The torque that opposes the deflection torque and brings the pointer back to its zero position. It is produced by the controlling system.
    • Damping torque: The torque that reduces the oscillations of the pointer and helps it to settle quickly. It is produced by the damping system.

    Effects Used to Produce Deflecting Torque

    • Magnetic effect: Used in most ammeters, voltmeters, and wattmeters. It produces a deflecting torque by using a magnetic field.
    • Electromagnetic induction effect: Used in voltmeters, ammeters, and energy meters. It produces a deflecting torque by using electromagnetic induction.
    • Heating effect: Used in thermal instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using the heat generated by the current.
    • Chemical effect: Used in integrating instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using a chemical reaction.
    • Electrostatic effect: Used in electrostatic instruments. It produces a deflecting torque by using an electrostatic field.

    Torque to Weight Ratio (T/W Ratio)

    • The T/W ratio is an important factor in instrument design. It is the ratio of the deflecting torque to the frictional torque.
    • A higher T/W ratio indicates a more sensitive instrument.

    Analog Voltmeters and Ammeters

    • Analog voltmeters measure voltage and display the output using a needle.
    • Analog ammeters measure current and display the output using a needle.
    • Both types of instruments use a moving coil or a moving iron to measure the quantity.

    Comparison with Digital Instruments

    • Analog instruments have some advantages over digital instruments, such as:
      • Providing a better idea of the order of magnitude and trends.
      • Not requiring a power supply beyond the test current source.
    • However, digital instruments have generally superseded analog instruments due to their superior accuracy and precision.

    Scale and Range

    • Analog instruments have a scale and range that is determined by the instrument's design.

    • The scale and range can be altered by providing a shunt coil or a multiplier.### Merits and Demerits

    • Merits refer to favorable circumstances, means, or opportunities that contribute to the success of a desired end.

    • Merits also describe the respectable qualities of a thing that make it worthy of respect and praise.

    Demerits

    • Demerits refer to the marks or characteristics of a thing that are deficient or misconduct.
    • Demerits hamper the respect a thing has gained through its merits.

    Difference between Merits and Demerits

    • Merits are favorable to success, while demerits are unfavorable and have adverse effects.
    • Merits refer to advantages or favorable significance, while demerits refer to unfavorable points.

    Importance of Considering Merits and Demerits

    • When evaluating a thing, it is essential to consider both merits and demerits to make an informed decision.

    Examples of Merits and Demerits

    Merits of Social Media

    • Social media provides a wide social and mental platform for expression.
    • It helps small businesses with marketing strategies.
    • Social media is beneficial for educational purposes, especially during pandemic times.
    • It can aid in job searches and provide opportunities to connect with entrepreneurs.
    • Online profiles on LinkedIn help individuals connect with notable entrepreneurs.

    Demerits of Social Media

    • Oversharing on social media can lead to privacy problems.
    • Cyberbullying is a significant disadvantage of social media.
    • Social media platforms can spread misinformation.
    • Blackmailing and releasing intimate videos on social media can harm reputations.
    • Social media lacks the basic essence of mental and emotional connections between people.
    • Not everyone is genuine on social media platforms, and it can be misleading.

    Wattmeter and Energy Meter

    • A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electric power given to or developed by an electrical circuit.
    • There are two types of wattmeters:
      • Electrodynamometer wattmeter (for both DC and AC power measurement)
      • Induction wattmeter (for AC power measurement only)
    • A wattmeter consists of two coils:
      • One coil is connected in series with the circuit (current coil)
      • One coil is connected in parallel with the circuit (voltage coil)

    Energy Meter

    • An energy meter is a device used to measure and record the consumption of electrical energy.
    • It is widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial settings to ensure accurate metering of electricity usage.
    • An energy meter has four main parts:
      • Driving System (electromagnet and copper band)
      • Moving System (aluminium disc)
      • Braking System (permanent magnet)
      • Registering System (counting mechanism)
    • The working principle of an energy meter is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
    • The energy meter measures the power consumption of a load by interacting the magnetic fields of a current coil and a voltage coil.

    How an Energy Meter Works

    • Current Measurement: The energy meter measures the current flowing through it using a current coil.
    • Voltage Measurement: The energy meter measures the voltage using a voltage coil.
    • Electric Energy Calculation: The energy meter calculates the power consumption by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and current values.
    • Power Calculation: The power consumed by the load is calculated by multiplying the voltage and current values.
    • Energy Integration: The energy meter integrates the power over time to calculate the total energy consumption.
    • Display and Communication: Modern energy meters have digital displays and communication capabilities to transmit data remotely.

    Application of Energy Meters

    • Single-phase energy meters are used in residential and small commercial settings.
    • Three-phase energy meters are used in industrial and commercial settings with high electrical loads.
    • Three-phase energy meters are suitable for measuring energy consumption in factories, power requirements in commercial buildings, and consumption of large machinery and equipment.

    Types of 3-Phase Energy Meters

    • There are two types of 3-phase energy meters:
      • Three phases, three-wire meters (permanent horseshoe magnet)
      • Three phases, four-wire meter (three coils and three aluminum discs)

    Benefits of Using a 3-Phase Meter

    • The ability to use different phases for different rooms.
    • The ability to distribute the load.
    • Real-time and recorded power consumption data.
    • Protection of valuable equipment from high voltage damages.

    Analysis of Three-Phase Systems

    • A three-phase system consists of three phase conductors and a neutral conductor.
    • The sum of the line currents in a 3-phase system is equal to zero.
    • The three-phase system has several advantages, including:
      • Fewer conductors required compared to single-phase systems.
      • Continuous supply to the load.
      • Higher efficiency and minimum losses.
    • The three-phase system can be connected in two ways:
      • Star connection (four wires, including a neutral conductor)
      • Delta connection (three wires, no neutral point)### Three-Phase Loads
    • A three-phase load can be balanced or unbalanced.
    • A balanced load has equal magnitude and phase angle between the three phases.
    • In a balanced load, all phase voltages and line voltages are equal in magnitude.

    Three-Phase AC Generator

    • A three-phase AC generator has three windings, each with two terminals (start and finish).
    • Connecting a separate load across each phase winding would require six wires, making the system complicated and costly.

    Blondel's Theorem

    • Blondel's Theorem is used to determine the type of metering installation needed for a particular service.
    • The theorem states that one less element (or CT) is required in a watthour meter than the number of wires in the service to accurately meter the service.
    • For a single-phase two-wire service, a watthour meter with one stator (1s meter) is required.
    • For a three-phase, three-wire service (delta service), a form 5s meter with two elements is required.

    Reactive Power Measurement

    • Reactive power (Q) is caused by the phase shift between voltage and current due to inductance and capacitance.
    • Reactive power is denoted by Q and expressed in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
    • The formula for reactive power is Q = VI sin Φ.
    • Reactive power measurement is essential to determine the nature of the load and measure power factor.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Single-Phase Circuits

    • A single-phase varmeter (volt-ampere reactive meter) is used to measure reactive power in single-phase circuits.
    • The varmeter has an inductive voltage coil, which causes the current to lag 90° behind the voltage.
    • The meter indication is Q = VI sin Φ.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Three-Phase Circuits

    • For a three-phase balanced load, the reactive power measured is the same in all phases.
    • Only a single wattmeter is required to measure the reactive power.
    • The current coil is inserted in one phase, and the voltage coil is connected across the remaining two phases.

    Active Power

    • Active power is consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit.
    • It is also known as resistive power.
    • The active power is always positive, regardless of the instantaneous direction of voltage and current.
    • It is the rate of energy consumption by the load.

    Wattmeter and Energy Meter

    • A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electric power given to or developed by an electrical circuit.
    • There are two types of wattmeters:
      • Electrodynamometer wattmeter (for both DC and AC power measurement)
      • Induction wattmeter (for AC power measurement only)
    • A wattmeter consists of two coils:
      • One coil is connected in series with the circuit (current coil)
      • One coil is connected in parallel with the circuit (voltage coil)

    Energy Meter

    • An energy meter is a device used to measure and record the consumption of electrical energy.
    • It is widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial settings to ensure accurate metering of electricity usage.
    • An energy meter has four main parts:
      • Driving System (electromagnet and copper band)
      • Moving System (aluminium disc)
      • Braking System (permanent magnet)
      • Registering System (counting mechanism)
    • The working principle of an energy meter is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
    • The energy meter measures the power consumption of a load by interacting the magnetic fields of a current coil and a voltage coil.

    How an Energy Meter Works

    • Current Measurement: The energy meter measures the current flowing through it using a current coil.
    • Voltage Measurement: The energy meter measures the voltage using a voltage coil.
    • Electric Energy Calculation: The energy meter calculates the power consumption by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and current values.
    • Power Calculation: The power consumed by the load is calculated by multiplying the voltage and current values.
    • Energy Integration: The energy meter integrates the power over time to calculate the total energy consumption.
    • Display and Communication: Modern energy meters have digital displays and communication capabilities to transmit data remotely.

    Application of Energy Meters

    • Single-phase energy meters are used in residential and small commercial settings.
    • Three-phase energy meters are used in industrial and commercial settings with high electrical loads.
    • Three-phase energy meters are suitable for measuring energy consumption in factories, power requirements in commercial buildings, and consumption of large machinery and equipment.

    Types of 3-Phase Energy Meters

    • There are two types of 3-phase energy meters:
      • Three phases, three-wire meters (permanent horseshoe magnet)
      • Three phases, four-wire meter (three coils and three aluminum discs)

    Benefits of Using a 3-Phase Meter

    • The ability to use different phases for different rooms.
    • The ability to distribute the load.
    • Real-time and recorded power consumption data.
    • Protection of valuable equipment from high voltage damages.

    Analysis of Three-Phase Systems

    • A three-phase system consists of three phase conductors and a neutral conductor.
    • The sum of the line currents in a 3-phase system is equal to zero.
    • The three-phase system has several advantages, including:
      • Fewer conductors required compared to single-phase systems.
      • Continuous supply to the load.
      • Higher efficiency and minimum losses.
    • The three-phase system can be connected in two ways:
      • Star connection (four wires, including a neutral conductor)
      • Delta connection (three wires, no neutral point)### Three-Phase Loads
    • A three-phase load can be balanced or unbalanced.
    • A balanced load has equal magnitude and phase angle between the three phases.
    • In a balanced load, all phase voltages and line voltages are equal in magnitude.

    Three-Phase AC Generator

    • A three-phase AC generator has three windings, each with two terminals (start and finish).
    • Connecting a separate load across each phase winding would require six wires, making the system complicated and costly.

    Blondel's Theorem

    • Blondel's Theorem is used to determine the type of metering installation needed for a particular service.
    • The theorem states that one less element (or CT) is required in a watthour meter than the number of wires in the service to accurately meter the service.
    • For a single-phase two-wire service, a watthour meter with one stator (1s meter) is required.
    • For a three-phase, three-wire service (delta service), a form 5s meter with two elements is required.

    Reactive Power Measurement

    • Reactive power (Q) is caused by the phase shift between voltage and current due to inductance and capacitance.
    • Reactive power is denoted by Q and expressed in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
    • The formula for reactive power is Q = VI sin Φ.
    • Reactive power measurement is essential to determine the nature of the load and measure power factor.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Single-Phase Circuits

    • A single-phase varmeter (volt-ampere reactive meter) is used to measure reactive power in single-phase circuits.
    • The varmeter has an inductive voltage coil, which causes the current to lag 90° behind the voltage.
    • The meter indication is Q = VI sin Φ.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Three-Phase Circuits

    • For a three-phase balanced load, the reactive power measured is the same in all phases.
    • Only a single wattmeter is required to measure the reactive power.
    • The current coil is inserted in one phase, and the voltage coil is connected across the remaining two phases.

    Active Power

    • Active power is consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit.
    • It is also known as resistive power.
    • The active power is always positive, regardless of the instantaneous direction of voltage and current.
    • It is the rate of energy consumption by the load.

    Wattmeter and Energy Meter

    • A wattmeter is an instrument used to measure electric power given to or developed by an electrical circuit.
    • There are two types of wattmeters:
      • Electrodynamometer wattmeter (for both DC and AC power measurement)
      • Induction wattmeter (for AC power measurement only)
    • A wattmeter consists of two coils:
      • One coil is connected in series with the circuit (current coil)
      • One coil is connected in parallel with the circuit (voltage coil)

    Energy Meter

    • An energy meter is a device used to measure and record the consumption of electrical energy.
    • It is widely used in residential, commercial, and industrial settings to ensure accurate metering of electricity usage.
    • An energy meter has four main parts:
      • Driving System (electromagnet and copper band)
      • Moving System (aluminium disc)
      • Braking System (permanent magnet)
      • Registering System (counting mechanism)
    • The working principle of an energy meter is based on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction.
    • The energy meter measures the power consumption of a load by interacting the magnetic fields of a current coil and a voltage coil.

    How an Energy Meter Works

    • Current Measurement: The energy meter measures the current flowing through it using a current coil.
    • Voltage Measurement: The energy meter measures the voltage using a voltage coil.
    • Electric Energy Calculation: The energy meter calculates the power consumption by multiplying the instantaneous voltage and current values.
    • Power Calculation: The power consumed by the load is calculated by multiplying the voltage and current values.
    • Energy Integration: The energy meter integrates the power over time to calculate the total energy consumption.
    • Display and Communication: Modern energy meters have digital displays and communication capabilities to transmit data remotely.

    Application of Energy Meters

    • Single-phase energy meters are used in residential and small commercial settings.
    • Three-phase energy meters are used in industrial and commercial settings with high electrical loads.
    • Three-phase energy meters are suitable for measuring energy consumption in factories, power requirements in commercial buildings, and consumption of large machinery and equipment.

    Types of 3-Phase Energy Meters

    • There are two types of 3-phase energy meters:
      • Three phases, three-wire meters (permanent horseshoe magnet)
      • Three phases, four-wire meter (three coils and three aluminum discs)

    Benefits of Using a 3-Phase Meter

    • The ability to use different phases for different rooms.
    • The ability to distribute the load.
    • Real-time and recorded power consumption data.
    • Protection of valuable equipment from high voltage damages.

    Analysis of Three-Phase Systems

    • A three-phase system consists of three phase conductors and a neutral conductor.
    • The sum of the line currents in a 3-phase system is equal to zero.
    • The three-phase system has several advantages, including:
      • Fewer conductors required compared to single-phase systems.
      • Continuous supply to the load.
      • Higher efficiency and minimum losses.
    • The three-phase system can be connected in two ways:
      • Star connection (four wires, including a neutral conductor)
      • Delta connection (three wires, no neutral point)### Three-Phase Loads
    • A three-phase load can be balanced or unbalanced.
    • A balanced load has equal magnitude and phase angle between the three phases.
    • In a balanced load, all phase voltages and line voltages are equal in magnitude.

    Three-Phase AC Generator

    • A three-phase AC generator has three windings, each with two terminals (start and finish).
    • Connecting a separate load across each phase winding would require six wires, making the system complicated and costly.

    Blondel's Theorem

    • Blondel's Theorem is used to determine the type of metering installation needed for a particular service.
    • The theorem states that one less element (or CT) is required in a watthour meter than the number of wires in the service to accurately meter the service.
    • For a single-phase two-wire service, a watthour meter with one stator (1s meter) is required.
    • For a three-phase, three-wire service (delta service), a form 5s meter with two elements is required.

    Reactive Power Measurement

    • Reactive power (Q) is caused by the phase shift between voltage and current due to inductance and capacitance.
    • Reactive power is denoted by Q and expressed in volt-amperes reactive (VAR).
    • The formula for reactive power is Q = VI sin Φ.
    • Reactive power measurement is essential to determine the nature of the load and measure power factor.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Single-Phase Circuits

    • A single-phase varmeter (volt-ampere reactive meter) is used to measure reactive power in single-phase circuits.
    • The varmeter has an inductive voltage coil, which causes the current to lag 90° behind the voltage.
    • The meter indication is Q = VI sin Φ.

    Measurement of Reactive Power in Three-Phase Circuits

    • For a three-phase balanced load, the reactive power measured is the same in all phases.
    • Only a single wattmeter is required to measure the reactive power.
    • The current coil is inserted in one phase, and the voltage coil is connected across the remaining two phases.

    Active Power

    • Active power is consumed due to the resistive effect of an electrical circuit.
    • It is also known as resistive power.
    • The active power is always positive, regardless of the instantaneous direction of voltage and current.
    • It is the rate of energy consumption by the load.

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    Learn about analog instrument measurements, resolution of A/D converters, and their applications in pressure transmitters and leak detection.

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