Anabolism, Catabolism & Carbon Tetravalency

• Biochemistry involves studying chemical components and processes in living organisms.
• Understanding biochemistry is crucial for grasping anatomy and physiology.
• Organism structures exhibit biochemical organization.
• Processes like photosynthesis, respiration, digestion, and muscle contraction can be described biochemically.
• Living things comprise organic and inorganic chemical compounds.
• Key organic compounds include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
• Important inorganic substances are water, carbon dioxide, acids, bases, and salts.

Metabolism

• Metabolism encompasses all chemical reactions in a cell and is maintained by a high degree of organization.
• Anabolism involves combining simpler substances into complex ones, requiring energy.
• Catabolism involves breaking down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.
• Anabolic and catabolic reactions occur in tandem within living cells.

Importance of Carbon

• Carbon serves as the fundamental element in organic compounds.
• Carbon's unique properties allow it to occupy the central position in the skeleton of life.
• Carbon is tetravalent and can react with numerous elements via covalent bonds.
• Carbon atoms combine to form stable chains or rings.
• Carbon's ability to form diverse structures contributes to the vast variety of organic compounds.
• Carbon-oxygen associations provide stability to carbohydrate molecules through glycosidic linkages.
• Carbon combines with nitrogen to form peptide bonds in amino acids, which make up proteins.
• Carbon-hydrogen bonds are a potential source of chemical energy for cellular activities.

Importance of Water

• Water is essential for life.
• Water is the most abundant compound in all organisms.
• Water content varies; it ranges from 65% to 89% in different organisms.
• Human tissues contain water: ~20% in bone cells and ~85% in brain cells.
• Water is effective at stabilizing temperature due to the energy needed to break hydrogen bonds.
• Water is a reactant in biochemical processes such as photosynthesis and hydrolysis of marcomolecules.

Water’s Solvent Properties

• Water's polarity makes it an excellent solvent for polar substances.
• Ionic substances dissociate into positive and negative ions in water.
• Chemical reactions in cells occur in aqueous media and are catalyzed by enzymes.
• Nonpolar organic molecules, such as fats, are insoluble in water.

Heat of Vaporization of Water

• Water absorbs much heat when changing from liquid to gas; this is expressed as calories absorbed per gram vaporized.
• Water has a high specific heat of vaporization (574 Kcal/kg), which plays a vital role in regulating heat from oxidation.
• Evaporation provides a cooling effect for plants and animals.
• For example, evaporating 2 ml of water from 1 liter lowers the remaining 998 ml by 1°C.

Ionization and Protection by Water

• Water molecules ionize to form H+ and OH- ions.
• At 25°C, the concentration of each ion in pure water is about 10-7 mole/liter.
• Water acts as an effective lubricant, protecting against damage from friction.

Carbohydrates

• They are found in all organisms and cell parts.
• Cellulose (wood, cotton, paper) is the primary example.

Carbohydrate Roles

• Carbohydrates have structural and functional roles.
• Simple carbs are the main energy source in cells.
• Some carbs are key components of plant and microorganism cell walls.
• Carbohydrates are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Hydrated carbons have a hydrogen and oxygen ratio matching water (H₂O).
• The general formula is Cx(H₂O)y, where x is 3 to thousands, and y can be the same or different.
• They are primary products of photosynthesis made by green plants.
• They change chemically to produce other plant compounds.
• In a cell they combine with proteins and lipids, creating glycoproteins and glycolipids, respectively.
• Glycoproteins and glycolipids have roles in the extracellular matrix of animal and bacterial cell walls and are on biological membranes.

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates or "saccharides" fall into three classes: monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides.
• Monosaccharides ("simple sugars") are sweet, water-soluble, and can't be hydrolyzed to be made simpler.
• Monosaccharides chemically are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones.
• Carbons in a monosaccharide all have a hydroxyl group, except for one.
• That remaining carbon atom is either from an aldehyde ('aldo-sugar') or a ketone ('keto-sugar') group.
• Monosaccharides in nature contain 3-7 carbon atoms, forming trioses (3C), tetroses (4C), to heptoses (7C).
• They follow the formula (CH2O)n, where n is a whole number from three to thousands.
• Trioses are respiration intermediates and for photosynthesis.
• Pentoses and hexoses include ribose and glucose.

Monosaccharide Structures

• Monosaccharides form a ring structure in solution such as ribose (five-cornered ring called ribofuranose) and glucose (six-cornered ring known as glucopyranose).
• Glucose is abundant in fruits (grapes, figs, dates), with blood carrying 0.08% glucose.
• Starch, cellulose, and glycogen yield glucose upon complete hydrolysis.
• Photosynthesis describes glucose production in green plants, consuming energy from sunlight.
• Synthesizing 10g of glucose uses 717.6 Kcal of solar energy, which is stored as chemical energy.

Oligosaccharides

• Less sweet and soluble than monosaccharides, oligosaccharides produce two to ten monosaccharides on hydrolysis.
• Disaccharides yield two monosaccharides and it has a covalent glycosidic bond
• Disaccharides include maltose, sucrose (cane sugar which yields glucose and fructose upon hydrolysis), and lactose.
• Sucrose has the molecular form C12H22O11.

Polysaccharides

• Polysaccharides are complex, abundant, usually tasteless, and branched, formed by monosaccharide units linked by glycosidic bonds of a high molecular weight, and are sparingly soluble in water.
• Important polysaccharides: starch, glycogen, cellulose, dextrins, agar, pectin, and chitin. and their are only sparedly soluble in water.
• Starch is found in fruits, grains, seeds, and tubers, and it's a source of carbs for animals; plus, it yields molecules of glucose on the hdyrolysis.
• Amylose starches feature unbranched chains of glucose and are soluble in hot water, but amylopectin starches feature branches and are insoluble in hot/cold water.
• Starches provide a blue color with iodine.
• Glycogen (animal starch) stores carbs in animals and can be found in the liver/muscles.
• Glycogen is insoluble in water, yields a red color with iodine, and produces glucose upon hydrolysis.
• Cotton is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature because it is a pure form of cellulose.
• Cellulose is found in plant cell walls and is highly insoluble in water, and also yields glucose upon hydrolysis.
• Cellulose needs microorganisms to digest it in herbivores' digestive tracts.
• Microorganisms secrete cellulase for cellulose digestion; cellulose doesn't give color with iodine.

Lipids

• Lipids are water-insoluble but soluble in organic solvents.
• They are a heterogenous group of compounds related to being fatty acids
• Fat, oils, waxes and cholesterol are types of lipids.
• They comprise cellular membranes and store significant energy and are also hydrophobic.
• Energy stored in lipids is double as compared to carbs because there's higher C-H bonds and very low oxygen.
• Some lipids provide insulation against heat/cold and act as waterproof material.
• Waxes provide protective layers on insect exoskeletons, plant epidermis

Lipid Classification

• Lipids are classifies as acylglycerols, waxes, phospholipds, sphingolipids, glycolipids, terpenoid lipids (including carotenoids and steroids).
• Acylglycerols feature glycerol and fatty acids, with triacyl glycerol (triglycerides/neutral lipids) being the most common acyl glycerol.
• Acylglycerols are esters of alcohol and fatty acids.
• Ester production involves a chemical reaction between alcohol and an acid releasing water.
• When forming triglycerides, OH is released from alcohol and H from an acid, forming a water molecule
• Fatty acids make and contribute to triglycerides.

Fatty Acids

• Fatty acids have even numbers (2-30) of carbon atoms in a straight chain.
• Fatty acids are attached with hydrogen and feature an acidic COOH (carboxylic) group.
• They are also either with no double bond (being saturated), or with up to 6 double bonds (being unsaturated).
• Animal fatty acids are straight chains; acids in plants may be branched/ringed.
• The solubility of fatty acids in organic solvents and in their melting points all increase with more carbon atoms in the chain.
• Palmitic acid (C16) shows greater solubility than butyric acid (C4), plus a melting point of 63.1°C vs. -8°C.

Properties based on saturation

• Unsaturated fatty acids at room temperature are usually liquid/oils.
• Animal fats, with a high composition of saturated fatty acids are solid, where as plant fats are liquid.
• Fats are lighter than water, with certain fats crystallizing only under certain conditions if not already crystalline.

Waxes and Phospholipids

• Waxes protect fruits/leaves, plus secreted by some insects; waxes are long chain alkanes (with odd carbons ranging from C25 to C35) mixed with alcohols, ketones, and ester of fatty acids that are long.
• Plants are protected from water loss and abrasion with waxes that also provide a barrier for insects, birds and animals.
• Phospholipids feature derivatives of phosphatidic acid (glycerol, fatty acids, and phosphoric acid).
• Their are Nitrogenous basses such as choline, ethanolamine, and serine.
• They occur in animal and plant cells, associating with membranes where Phosphatidylcholine is one common phospholipid.

Terpenoids

• Terpenoids are made up of is preen odd units that join condensates to make rubber carotenoids (a source for vitamin A) and steroids.
• Lipids store significant energy and support the cell and organs inside.
• Lipids also help protect from abrasion, water loss, and mechanical abrasion.

Proteins

• Proteins are abundant (over 50% of dry weight) in all cells/parts.
• They control most of cell metabolism (all enzymes are proteins) and regulate metabolic processes as hormones
• Proteins transport oxygen (hemogoblin), lipids, and metal ions.
• Antibodies are a type of protein that defends the body
• Blood clotting and chromosomal movement during cell division are caused by proteins.
• Compounds found in proteins are carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen.
• 170 types of amino acids occur in cells/tissues, of which 25 are constituents of proteins.
• Most proteins are made of 20 amino acids, and they feature both an -NH2 (amino) and -COOH (carboxyl) group attached to one alpha carbon atom.

Amino Acids

R may be hydrogen (glycine) or CH3 (alanine).

• Type/nature of the R group varies among amino acids.
• Chains of amino acids combine create proteins the amino group of one acids may react with the carboxyl releasing some molecules of water.
• peptide bond between -hydroxyl group of carboxyl and the hydrogen of -amino of different acid.
• They join together to create tripeptides, tetrapeptides,.

Protein structures

• Shape and amino acid sequence can be related to shape and properties.
• The first level is Sequence/number of acid.
• Insulun is 51 acids across 2 chains that scientist Sanger found.
• Hemoglobin is made of chains of alpha & beta with 141, & 146 acids
• Then they coil create to forms of structures such as helix.
• Helical structure is made of bonds with molecules by the spiral
• The chains bend to form a globe which is maintained by ionic, disulfide bonds
• It is built with different bond in aquesous envireoment with hydrophillic and hydrophobic amino acids.
• Then Polypeptide come together thanks too interactions and bonds
• Ex. hemoglobin

Protein Classification

• The complexity and diversity makes it hard but classfied with their structure
• They can be fibrous (chains in form of fibrils).
• Main structure and insoluble with elastin
• Or Globular (spherical that folding of chains)
• Main part is structure that is soluble and can change during physical changes

Nucleic Acids

• Nucleic acids were first isolated in 1869 found in cells and the acidic named mean due acid being isolation
• 2 type DNA that occurs in chromosomes and RNA in lower volumes with nucleolus,ribosomes and else area

Nucleic Acids cont.

• Sub units 5 caborn, nitrogen contain and a phosphic
• The sugar can can both ribose and deoxy ribose
• The 2 type a single ring base and a base contain
• Cytonine is shortned to C wheras thymine T
• Adenine A and quanine G both attach that at psotion 1 and 5 of its suger
• A nuclside is a base and a suagr combined a phosphate can too combine
• While rna each nucloetide has its own DNA that that removed oxgyen
• ATP is a popular nucleotied that has energy currency

Structure and Synthesis

• DNA made in 4 ways with that 1 bonded others a a specific sequence.
• To make chains that know a nucloeties that bonds where 2 combine for dinulocie
• NAD is 3 units

Base pair composition

• The data by Chargaff said that there are set ratio in most
• A and T that a equal and G and C can too be equal.
• Wilikins and Franklin used diffraction to find structure of helix
• That DNA come in of two helix chained coiled and pair.

Strands and amount

• Strands are made as helix thanks to held.
• The pair include A and T and they have to be same number
• G and C also have to be equal the is 3 between each of them.
• Their is 10 base pair in 34 and that DNA depened species and due to the chromosones.
• Amount of gern and soma differs and it the chromosones.

DNA

• DNA store structure store information and functions.
• Bactria has the strand in liner order to bases that hundered each
• Gene is a unit in inherited by biology and E.coli genomes that have at least protein.

Haemophilus Influenzae

• Was sequncing fully with information on the date

RAN or Ribonucleic

• It both structure and DNA polymer.
• Molecule have feature like a strand
• The type of process synthesis DNA called Transcriptions

Types

• They are is types names mRNA that used to to form by DNA
• and tRNA with for there own
• All can move from cytoplam to functions they set there.
• The name can tell you to takes message from cell form proteins and acids,
• The strands that RNA consist of vaires that depened gene size
• The amio size acids 3 length of acids that 3 and 4 percent in total with acids

Transfer

• Transfer made of celular lengths that chain amino and there types.
• Transfer transport molecules chain where synthesized thanks picks acids.
• Made a lot and has proteins of mass

Conjugated Molecules

• Conjuated molecule contain things like lipids to created things like protein and cell secretiona and membeane cells
• Nucleic aicds are need to conmine poteisn too formed
• Play a part of cell repduction that help with chromosome expression.

Explore the relationship between anabolism and catabolism. Investigate carbon's tetravalency and its impact on organic molecules. Understand the significance of carbon chains and rings in living organisms.