American Government Exam 2 Study Notes

• Study notes for American Government Exam 2.

Unit 3

• Super Patriot: one who shows extreme, unwavering patriotism, potentially conflicting with broader democratic ideals.
  • They believe that they should always consent to be governed.
• Parental Argument: a moral obligation exists to obey parents.
  • Crito introduced it noting the government is like our parents, that if the government sentences citizen to death for their crimes, there is a moral obligation to die
• Benefactor argument: citizens owe obedience to the government for the benefits it provides, creating a debt of gratitude.
• Agreement argument: arguments or discussions focus on consensus or agreement on a policy, issue, or legislation.
• Karl Marx: Known as a cynic, as well as for "Kapital," a criticism of wealth of nations.
• Cynicism: is a skeptical or distrustful attitude toward political institutions, politicians, and government actions.
  • Being skeptical about consenting to be governed means thinking "not this government but maybe one down the road."
• Bourgeoisie: in Marx terms, in a capitalist society are the one with the economic power because they control the production and distribution of goods.
• Proletariat: the working class who work for wages and lack significant capital or property.
• Alienation: According to Marxist theory, individuals, especially workers, become disconnected/estranged due to the economic system's structure.
• Anarchism: emphasizes negative liberty and wants total freedom, represented by green anarchists.
• Social Anarchism: seeks to overthrow capitalism and state via social revolution, creating a federal society of voluntary associations and local communities based on mutual aid.
• Individual Anarchism: Opposes property violating entitlement theory of justice by giving privilege through unjust acquisition/exchange, thus exploiting and seeking to "destroy the tyranny of capital".
• Martin Luther King Jr: Advocated for government actively protecting all citizens' rights, promoting justice/equality, enforcing law, and supporting nonviolent civil disobedience/peaceful protest.
• Just laws: uphold moral law and uplift people.
  • They align with moral/God's law, uplift humanity, benefit all, and harm none.
• Unjust Laws: go against moral law and harm people.
  • They harm and degrade human personality and are enforced by a majority on a minority without their consent in creating them and does not enforce on itself.

Unit 3 Short Response Questions

• King: Just laws uphold moral law, uplift people, benefit everyone, and harm no one; unjust laws are against moral law, harm people, and degrade human personality.
  • Unjust laws are enforced by the majority on a minority and don't enforce on itself.
  • A chaotic society will occur if every member of society uses tactic.
  • Uprising will occur on laws affecting certain minorities.
• The problems with the answers is everyone has an and they're all on opposing sides.
  • Super patriots agree we should always consent to be governed.
  • Anarchists disagree with consenting to be governed.
  • Cynics and Karl Marx said maybe we should be governed

Unit 4

• Democracy vs. effective government:
  • Democracy: a system of government where power is vested in the people, typically through elected representatives, ensuring political freedom, equality, and participation.
  • Effective Government: focuses on making decisions, implementing policies, and achieving outcomes efficiently, regardless of system.
• Plato: "The Republic" argues that ideal government should be ruled by wise and knowledgeable people who understand the true nature of society.
  • There are three classes, rulers (philosopher kings), soldiers, and producers (farmers, artisans).
  • His vision prioritizes justice and harmony
• Classical democracy: Ancient Athens' system of direct citizen participation in decision-making.
  • Eligible citizens (free adult male Athenians) voted on laws, policies, and key decisions in assemblies.
• Assembly: In Athens, 8,000 wealthy, native-born men of age needed.
• Cultural characteristics of direct democracy: one person one vote, that had enlightened understanding and deep participation in both ethics and politics.
• Ship at sea analogy: 1 navigator, 29 sailors, one person (old man who sailing for years) says he knows a better and is correct.
• Robert Dahl: political scientist known for his work in democracy, argued that democracy works best when there is broad participation, inclusivity, and competition in politics.
  • Polyarchy: the "concept of polyarchy" is a system where multiple groups compete for power/influence, preventing any single group from dominating.
  • Emphasized the importance of political pluralism, the protection of individual rights, and the role of institutions in facilitating democratic governance
• Pluralism: idea that power is distributed among various interest groups, organizations, and individuals in society, instead of being held by a single entity or elite.
  • In a pluralist system, these groups compete to influence policies and ensure diverse views and interests are represented.
  • Pluralism emphasizes political participation, diversity, and the belief that no single group should dominate the political.
• Power: the ability of individuals or groups to influence or control decisions, policies, and actions within a political system.
  • Power can be centralized or distributed among multiple institutions, formal or informal.
• Politics: the process by which decisions are made, power is exercised, and policies are developed within a society.
  • It can be local, national or international
• Means of politics: the methods and tools used include activities such as voting, campaigning, lobbying, protests, negotiations, and media influence
  • The means of politics are the strategies and actions taken to gain power, shape policies, and manage governance.
• Assumptions of pluralism: diverse interest, competition, access to power, balance of influence, protection of rights.
  • Democracy works best when various groups participate and influence the decision-making process, ensuring fair representation and preventing monopolies of power.
• Robert Michels: Political sociologist known for his “iron law of oligarchy," which argues that all organizations, including democracies, inevitably develop an oligarchic structure.
  • A small group of leaders ends up controlling power due to greater resources, knowledge, and organizational control.
• Iron law of oligarchy: regardless of their democratic foundations, all organizations inevitably develop into oligarchies.
  • A small, elite group of leaders or individuals will gain control over decision-making and power, sidelining the broader membership
  • This happens due to the need for efficiency, accumulation of knowledge and resources by leaders, and the difficulty of mass participation and sustains mass participation.

Unit 5

• Dye and Zeigler: emphasize the role of interest groups, political parties, and institutional structures in shaping policy and decision-making.
  • American democracy is a complex system where power is dispersed among multiple actors, including elected officials, bureaucracies, and special interest groups, rather than being concentrated in a single authority.
• Irony of Democracy: Elitism, in order to have democracy, you can't have democracy.
• Gaetano mosca: from the ruling class argued that every society is divided between a minority who rules and a majority who are ruled
  • Believed a small, organized elite always holds power and maintains dominance through control of resources, information, and social institutions
• Tree metaphor: Governmental decisions are like trees; twig decisions are made by the people, such as who to elect as president, while branch and trunk decisions are more powerful and impactful, made by higher-ups.
• Extended republic: Madison, Federalist Papers 10.
  • In the North, religion, no slaves, industry heavy.
  • In the Middle, commerce was big.
  • In the South, not religious, slaves, and agriculture.
  • Variety of interests/groups makes it less likely that any faction dominates or infringes on rights.
• Federalism: power is divided and shared between a central (national) government and regional (state or provincial) governments.
  • It allows both levels of government to have authority over areas, such as defense, taxation, and education.
  • Federalism aims to balance the benefits of centralized governance with local autonomy, enabling regions to address specific needs while maintaining unity within the larger state
• Unitary system: Power is centralized in a single national government, which holds most or all of the authority
  • Regional or local governments, if existing, derive their powers from the central authority and can be restructured or dissolved.
• Confederacy: power is held primarily by regional or state governments, with a weak central government that has limited authority.
  • States/regions retain sovereignty/independence, and central government's powers are usually delegated by member states.
• Supremacy clause: federal law takes precedence over state laws when there is a conflict.
  • The Constitution, federal laws, and treaties are the "supreme law of the land," binding judges in every state, regardless of state laws.
• Style of constitution: the distribution of powers (executive, legislative, judicial), and the rights and responsibilities of citizens.
  • Influences how laws are interpreted, amended, and applied.
• Necessary and proper/implied powers/elastic clause: grants Congress the power to make all laws that are "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers (specifically listed).
  • This allows for expansion of federal authority beyond what is explicitly stated, to address unforeseen issues and adapt to changing circumstances.
• McCulloch v. Maryland: established the principle of implied powers and reinforced the supremacy of federal law over state law.
• Commerce clause: grants Congress power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, among states, and with Native American tribes.
  • It allows Congress to regulate a wide range of economic activities that affect interstate commerce, even if the activity itself occurs within a single state.
• Gibbons v. Ogden: dispute between steamboat operators in NY and NJ, court ruled the Federal government, under the commerce clause has the authority to regulate interstate commerce, including navigation, and that federal law took precedence over state-granted monopolies
  • It expanded federal power over interstate commerce and helped define the limits of state authority in regulating economic activity.
• Spending powers: Government's authority, particularly federal, to allocate and spend funds for various purposes.
  • Congress taxes and spends to defend nation, promote general welfare, and carry out other duties.
  • Government funds programs, services, infrastructure, and policies, often conditionally for states/individuals receiving funds.
• Natural rights: fundamental rights believed to be inherent to all individuals by virtue of being human.
  • Rights are not granted by governments/laws and are universal/inalienable.
• Social contract: individuals agree to form a society and establish a government in exchange for protection and the benefits of organized living.
  • They give up certain freedoms for security, order, and protection of rights.
• Unicameral legislature: has one chamber or house, unlike a bicameral system (two chambers).
  • All legislative duties, like passing laws, representing constituents, and approving budgets, are done by one body single legislative body.
• Bicameral legislature: legislative body of two separate chambers/houses.
  • Balances power and ensures thorough review/debate of proposed laws.
  • One chamber represents the people (e.g., House of Representatives), and one represents states/regions (e.g., Senate).
• Separation of powers: government's responsibilities/powers are divided into three branches: the executive (enforces laws), legislative (makes laws), and judicial (interprets laws).
  • This prevents one branch from gaining too much power and promotes a system of checks and balances.
• Federalist: supported a strong central government and advocated U.S. Constitution ratification, establishing federalism.
  • Believed a strong national government was necessary to maintain order, provide stability, ensure prosperity, and provided right balance of power between the federal government and the states
• Anti-Federalist: opposed U.S. Constitution ratification because it gave too much power to the federal government at the expense of states' rights/individual freedoms.
  • They were concerned that a strong national government could become tyrannical and that the Constitution lacked sufficient protections for individual rights
• Ratification: approving/adopting a legal document/agreement, like a constitution/treaty.
  • In the U.S. Constitution, ratification is the process by which the 13 original states officially approved.
• Unitary system: Power is concentrated in a central authority, with little or no power granted to regional or local governments.
  • The central government can create, modify, or abolish regional governments.
• Enumerated powers: specific powers granted to the federal government in the U.S. Constitution, Article I, Section 8.
  • Powers include regulating interstate commerce, coining money, maintaining armed forces, and declaring war.
  • Powers limit the federal government to actions explicitly in Constitution, distinguishing them from implied powers (not listed).
• Dual federalism: powers/responsibilities of federal and state governments are clearly divided and function independently within their respective areas.
• Cooperative federalism: federal and state governments work together to address complex issues and achieve common goals.
  • Involves shared responsibilities and collaboration between the two levels of government
• Categorical grants: federal funds for state/local governments for specific, narrowly defined purposes.
  • These grants come with strict guidelines on how the money should be spent, such as funding for education, healthcare, or transportation projects.
• Block grants: federal funds for state/local governments for broad, general purposes, like education, healthcare, or social services.
  • Unlike categorical grants, block grants offer more flexibility, allowing recipients to determine how to allocate funds based on their specific needs and priorities.
• Fiscal federalism: the financial relationships between different levels of government, particularly how the federal government allocates funds to state and local governments.
  • The distribution of grants, funding, and resources and ways money is raised/spent to achieve public policy goals
• Methods for amending the constitution: allow for both federal and state involvement in changing the Constitution, ensuring broad support for any amendments.
  • Congressional proposal: amendments can be proposed if 2/3 majority in house and senate then ratified by 3/4 state.
  • Constitutional Convention: amendment can also be proposed by a constitutional convention if 2/3 of state legislatures then ratified by 3/4 states.
• Strengths and weakness of the articles of confederation:
  • Strengths: Sovereignty for states, unified government, land ordinances.
  • Weaknesses: weak central government, no executive or judiciary, states' power over federal authority, and difficulty amending.