1860-2000 History of American Education

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Questions and Answers

What was the primary function of the reorganized Bureau of Education?

To accredit educational institutions

To gather educational data (correct)

To oversee educational funding

To formulate educational policies

Why did some Americans object to compulsory school attendance laws?

They feared government compulsion (correct)

They believed education was only for the elite

They believed education was a state responsibility

They thought it would lead to overcrowding in schools

What was the main difference between the 'One Best System' and Common Schools?

The number of students

The age grading system (correct)

The location of the schools

The type of curriculum

What was the purpose of examinations in the new urban school system?

To provide immediate evidence of student achievement or failure Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the superintendent in the new system?

To oversee curriculum development and student promotion Signup and view all the answers

Why did some advocates of single-sex schooling oppose coeducation?

They believed girls would be exposed to coarse behavior from boys Signup and view all the answers

Why did parents of female students prefer female teachers?

They feared male teachers would mistreat their daughters Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of the debate on coeducation?

Coeducation became more accepted, but with some restrictions Signup and view all the answers

What was the argument made by defenders of coeducation?

That the presence of girls would improve male behavior Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of coeducation on traditional gender roles?

Coeducation reinforced traditional gender roles Signup and view all the answers

What was John Dewey's primary goal for reorganizing traditional subjects in education?

To make learning more relevant to real-life experiences Signup and view all the answers

What was Ella Flagg Young's view on teachers in the education system?

They are dignified and important Signup and view all the answers

What was the main criticism of traditional moral education by Progressives?

It was too focused on individual behavior Signup and view all the answers

What was John Dewey's view on the role of schools in a democratic society?

They are essential for incubating democratic values Signup and view all the answers

What type of teaching method did Ella Flagg Young support?

Object teaching Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of John Dewey's approach to education?

Social reform Signup and view all the answers

What was the main concern of Progressives regarding modern life?

The rise of industrialization Signup and view all the answers

What was Ella Flagg Young's role in John Dewey's lab school?

She helped develop the curriculum Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of John Dewey's approach to moral education?

Civic responsibility Signup and view all the answers

Why was Ella Flagg Young critical of the traditional curriculum?

It lacked a connection to real-life experiences Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the educational program established by the Freedmen's Bureau by 1870?

4329 schools had been established, with a combined enrollment of more than 247,000 students Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of the Freedmen's Bureau in establishing schools?

To promote literacy and formal education as essential ingredients of true liberation Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Morrill Act?

It provided financial support for both agricultural and mechanical education Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of the nationalizing trend in society following the Civil War?

A more powerful national government Signup and view all the answers

What was Booker T. Washington's educational philosophy?

Emphasis on industrial education and practical skills Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Hampton Institute?

It was a school that emphasized the importance of labor and practical skills Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the educational program established by the Freedmen's Bureau in terms of teacher employment?

More than 9,500 teachers were working in the formerly enslaved people's schools by 1869 Signup and view all the answers

What was the goal of the Federal Education Agency?

To create a federal education system Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Tuskegee University?

It was a model for black higher education Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of General Samuel Chapman Armstrong?

He was the founder of Hampton Institute Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of the progressive approach to moral education?

Emphasizing the development of civic morality through scientific reasoning Signup and view all the answers

What was a consequence of compulsory education laws in America?

A re-evaluation of the purpose of secondary education Signup and view all the answers

What was a benefit of the progressive approach to moral education?

It encouraged students to think independently Signup and view all the answers

What was a challenge faced by educators in the early 1900s?

Meeting college entrance requirements Signup and view all the answers

What was true of students who received a progressive moral education?

They were more flexible in their approach to social problems Signup and view all the answers

What was a disadvantage of the progressive approach to moral education?

It could be bewildering and disorienting for some students Signup and view all the answers

What was the main difference between the progressive approach to moral education and the common school approach?

The progressive approach emphasized solving social problems scientifically Signup and view all the answers

What was the approximate number of American students enrolled in public high schools before 1875?

Less than 25,000 Signup and view all the answers

What was the approximate number of slaves found on the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina in 1861?

10,000 Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary mission of schools during the time period discussed?

To maintain order and stability in society Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of the missionaries who arrived on the Sea Islands in 1862?

To teach the former slaves how to read and write Signup and view all the answers

What was the goal of the common school curriculum in the early 1800s?

To develop students into good citizens with proper American values Signup and view all the answers

What was the name of the university established with the help of the 62nd and 65th US Colored Troops?

Lincoln University Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of education during the Progressive Era?

Economic betterment Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary motivation of the missionary teachers from New England?

To educate the former slaves in the ways of Puritanism and New England Signup and view all the answers

What was the main goal of pedagogical progressives?

To promote social justice Signup and view all the answers

What was John Dewey's focus in his educational experiments?

The potential of children in concrete social activities Signup and view all the answers

What was established by Congress in 1865, a month before the end of the American Civil War?

The Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands Signup and view all the answers

What was the most significant achievement of the Freedmen's Bureau?

Establishing schools for former slaves Signup and view all the answers

What was the result of the emerging bureaucracies in education?

The socialization of students into an authoritarian order Signup and view all the answers

What was the main characteristic of the school population during the time period discussed?

Standardized and conforming Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of commanding officers in the education of former slaves?

They recruited teachers and established school districts Signup and view all the answers

How many missionaries arrived on the Sea Islands in the spring of 1862?

53 Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of schools in the social fabric of the cities during the time period discussed?

An antidote to social currents such as class divisions and corruption Signup and view all the answers

What was the main change in education during the Progressive Era?

A shift from moral virtue to economic betterment Signup and view all the answers

What was the main goal of educational reform during the Progressive Era?

To create a system that provides equal opportunity for all students Signup and view all the answers

What was the main debate about the goals of education after WWII?

Should education focus on academic or social goals? Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of Pedagogical Progressives?

Experiential education with a focus on freedom and individualism. Signup and view all the answers

What did Arthur Bestor criticize in his journal article?

The curriculum changes sponsored by progressives. Signup and view all the answers

What was the consequence of life adjustment education, according to Arthur Bestor?

Students would be shortchanged by preventing them from contact with academic studies. Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of Traditionalists in education?

Knowledge-centered education with a focus on discipline and authority. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main difference between Pedagogical Progressives and Traditionalists?

Focus on discipline and authority vs. freedom and individualism. Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of Charles Prosser's vision of education?

Life adjustment education with a focus on social skills. Signup and view all the answers

What was Arthur Bestor's profession?

History professor. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the debate between equity and excellence in education?

The debate was unresolved. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main issue in education after WWII?

How to achieve equal educational outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the Committee of Ten?

To promote liberal arts curriculum in high schools Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education?

Practical life skills and social training Signup and view all the answers

What was the main goal of the 'Education for Life Adjustment' movement?

To teach practical life skills and daily living skills Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Committee of Ten's report in 1893?

It established the importance of liberal arts education Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the Carnegie units?

They established a standard curriculum for high schools Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of the National Education Association's Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Schools?

To offer a more practical and less academically demanding curriculum Signup and view all the answers

What was the main concern of the 'Education for Life Adjustment' movement?

That teachers were not creating meaningful lessons during the Great Depression Signup and view all the answers

What was the purpose of the Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education?

To emphasize the importance of health, citizenship, and worthy use of leisure Signup and view all the answers

What was the main difference between the Committee of Ten's recommendations and the NEA's recommendations?

The Committee of Ten recommended a more academically demanding curriculum, while the NEA recommended a less demanding curriculum Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the National Education Association's Commission on College Entrance Requirements?

It recommended that all high school students study classical and modern languages, English, math, history, and science Signup and view all the answers

What was the main focus of the 1974 Supreme Court case Nichols?

Bilingual education for Chinese American children Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of Public Law 94-142?

To assure children with disabilities received appropriate education Signup and view all the answers

What was James Bryant Conant's concern regarding education in suburban areas?

Lack of challenging curriculum for gifted students Signup and view all the answers

What was the main issue Conant identified in inner-city schools?

Large numbers of students needing vocational curricula Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the Nichols case for bilingual education?

Development of new approaches to bilingual education Signup and view all the answers

What was the main goal of Public Law 94-142?

To provide education for children with disabilities Signup and view all the answers

What was Conant's recommendation for inner-city schools?

Developing vocational curricula to attract students Signup and view all the answers

What was the trigger that led to the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958?

The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union Signup and view all the answers

What was the concern of Conant regarding suburban schools?

Lack of challenging curriculum for gifted students Signup and view all the answers

What was the main argument of those who opposed federal aid to education?

Education is not mentioned in the Constitution Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of Conant's study on education in small and medium-sized cities?

Establishment of comprehensive high schools Signup and view all the answers

According to Michael Harrington, what is the primary difference between the old poor and the new poor in America?

Level of expectation for long-term betterment Signup and view all the answers

What was the main concern of Conant's study on education in metropolitan areas?

Inequitable distribution of resources between suburbs and inner cities Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of the National Defense Education Act of 1958?

To improve education in science, math, and foreign languages Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act?

It allowed federal education funds to be withheld from segregating schools Signup and view all the answers

Why did the new poor, according to Harrington, not see education as a way out of their situations?

They saw education as a way to feel inferior Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary concern of conservative critics in the 1970s and 1980s regarding education?

The decline of authority and standards in schools Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the Bilingual Education Act of 1968?

To improve the education of Spanish-speaking students Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding of the National Commission on Excellence in 1983?

High rates of adult illiteracy, declining SAT scores, and low scores on international comparisons Signup and view all the answers

What was the long-lasting effect of the National Defense Education Act of 1958?

It legitimized broad-based federal aid to education Signup and view all the answers

What was the concern that drove the passage of the National Defense Education Act of 1958?

The Soviet Union was close to surpassing the United States in science and technology Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the solutions proposed by the National Commission on Excellence in 1983?

Requiring all students to complete 'new basics' in high school Signup and view all the answers

What was the focus of educational reform efforts in the 1990s and early 2000s?

Tightening standards and setting academic goals Signup and view all the answers

What did the National Defense Education Act of 1958 provide financial assistance for?

Undergraduate students in the form of loans and graduate students in the form of fellowships Signup and view all the answers

What was the concern about the education of Spanish-speaking students that led to the Bilingual Education Act of 1968?

They were not achieving well in English due to an all-English curriculum Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the Secretary of Education under the Reagan administration?

To take an active and critical role in shaping educational policy Signup and view all the answers

What was the context in which federal aid to education was tied to national defense?

The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of Michael Harrington's book?

To highlight the differences between the old and new poor in America Signup and view all the answers

What was the significance of the National Commission on Excellence in 1983?

It highlighted the decline in American education and proposed solutions Signup and view all the answers

What was the main criticism of the educational system by conservative critics in the 1970s and 1980s?

That it had resulted in a decline in authority and standards Signup and view all the answers

What is the main goal of the school choice movement?

To give parents the right to choose the public school they wish to send their children Signup and view all the answers

What did Obama's Race to the Top initiative do for charter schools?

Enlarged federal funding for charter schools Signup and view all the answers

What is true about charter schools?

They are independent of local district control and receive public funding Signup and view all the answers

What is a concern of reformers regarding school choice?

It would be the death of public education Signup and view all the answers

What is a contentious issue in the school choice movement?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

How many states had charter school legislation by 2012?

41 states Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

In 1861, Union troops occupied the Sea Islands off the coast of South Carolina, freeing 10,000 slaves.
General William T. Sherman described the freed slaves as being in a state of "abject ignorance and mental stolidity."
In 1862, 53 missionaries from Boston and New York arrived to establish schools for the former slaves.
The Freedmen's Bureau was established in 1865 to provide education, healthcare, and legal rights to refugees.
The Bureau's most significant achievement was education, with over 9,500 teachers working in formerly enslaved persons' schools by 1869.

Booker T. Washington

Born a slave in 1856, Washington escaped poverty, obtained an education, and achieved dignity and respectability as a black man in a nation controlled by whites.
He attended Hampton Institute, founded by General Samuel Chapman Armstrong, which emphasized labor as a "spiritual force" that increased wage-earning capacity and promoted virtues like fidelity, accuracy, and honesty.
In 1881, Washington organized a secondary and normal school that became Tuskegee University, which emphasized a work ethic and practical outlook.

Beginning a Modern School System (1865-1890)

This period is known as the modernization of America's development, with a nationalizing trend, increasing urbanization, and a more powerful national government.
The Morrill Act of 1862 provided financial support for agricultural and mechanical education, leading to the establishment of land-grant universities like the University of Missouri.
The Federal Education Agency was established, but it lost its departmental status and was reorganized into a bureau of education, mainly gathering educational data.
Compulsory school attendance laws were passed, leading to the growth of urban schools and the development of a bureaucracy.
The "One Best System" emerged, with age grading, uniform courses of study, and standardized examinations.

Gender in the New System

The debate on coeducation was ongoing, with some arguing it would improve discipline and others fearing it would undermine traditional gender roles.
Coeducation was eventually adopted, but it did not challenge traditional gender roles, instead reinforcing them.

Education and Society

The emerging bureaucracy of schools prepared students for the authoritarian order of the workforce, with a focus on organization, regularity, punctuality, and discipline.
The curriculum reflected the individualism of the Western intellectual system, promoting social and economic mobility.

Pedagogical Progressives

John Dewey believed schools should be organized like other social institutions, with a focus on democratic social reform and the development of children's potential.
Dewey's laboratory school tested educational principles, focusing on the needs of children and society.
Ella Flagg Young, a professor of education, supported object teaching, manual training, and real-life curriculum, emphasizing the importance of teachers' roles.

The Progressive Approach to Moral Education

Progressives questioned traditional moral codes, arguing that what was needed was a more flexible approach to moral education, with a focus on social intelligence and civic responsibility.
John Dewey emphasized the development of social intelligence in the service of social interest and aims, integrated into the context of learning.
Progressive moral education's legacy included flexibility in approach to social problems, willingness to try new things, and an understanding of the relative nature of morality.### The Public High School
Before 1875, less than 25,000 American students were enrolled in public high schools.
Compulsory laws changed the face of secondary education in America.
Four themes troubled secondary educators in the early 1900s:
- Tension between classical subjects like Latin and Greek, and modern subjects like science, English lit, and foreign language.
- Problem of meeting college entrance requirements since different colleges required different things.
- Argument between educators who thought students should learn subjects that would prepare them for life, vs. traditional academic subjects.
- Should all students pursue the same course of study or should the interests & abilities of students determine the course of study?
The Committee of Ten, led by Harvard University President Charles Eliot, issued a report in 1893 supporting academic purpose of secondary education, dismissing curricula differentiation.
The committee proposed 5 model curricula, including classical & modern languages, English, math, history, and science.

Progressive Era

In 1918, the NEA's Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Schools (Cardinal Principles of Secondary Education) offered a curriculum less academically demanding and more practical.
The main goals of secondary education were:
- Health
- Command of fundamental processes
- Worth home-membership
- Vocation
- Citizenship
- Worthy use of leisure
- Ethical character
The "Education for Life Adjustment" movement proposed by Harvard Professor Charles Prosser in 1939 focused on practical concerns of daily living.

Post-WWII Era

The debate about the goals of education continued, with questions about whether the goal of education should be academic only, social, or both.
The quest became how to translate expanded opportunities into more equal educational outcomes at all levels of education.
Pedagogical Progressives vs. Pedagogical Traditionalists:
- Progressives believed in experiential education, child-centered education, freedom, and individualism.
- Traditionalists believed in knowledge-centered education, traditional subject-centered curriculum, teacher-centered education, discipline, and authority.

Sputnik and Federal Aid to Education

The National Defense Education Act of 1958 led to federal aid to education, legitimizing broad-based federal aid to education.
Significant education legislation:
- 1964 Civil Rights Act
- Bilingual Education Act of 1968
- Lau v. Nichols (1974)
- Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicapped Children Act) of 1975

Poverty and Education

James Bryant Conant's study of secondary education in small and medium-sized cities stressed the need for comprehensive high schools.
Conant recommended challenging gifted students, especially in science, English, and foreign languages.
He advocated for vocational curricula for the less talented and found large numbers of poor students in inner-city schools.

Thought Questions and Reforms

1970s-80s: many books were written over improvements to the American school system, with similar themes emerging.
Conservative critics reacted to liberal reforms, saying they resulted in the decline of authority and standards.
Liberal reformers said massive problems would take time to fix.
National Commission on Excellence (1983) reported high rates of adult illiteracy, declining SAT scores, and low scores on international comparisons of knowledge by US students.
The commission offered five solutions to the problem, including raising academic standards and strengthening teacher preparation.

Modern Era

During the 1990s and early 2000s, different administrations had educational reform programs, such as Clinton's Goals 2000, W. Bush's No Child Left Behind, and Obama's Race to the Top.
The school choice movement seeks to give parents the right to choose the public school they wish to send their children to, or receive vouchers to send their children to private schools.
Another critical area of reform: charter schools, independent of local district control, but receiving public funding.

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History of American Education