Alexander's Invasion of India

• Punjab, Gandhara and several tiny autonomous republics existed during the period in northwestern India
• Porus battled Alexander in the famed Battle of Hydaspes period (on the banks of the Jhelum)
• All other kings submitted quietly and readily about the same
• Ambhi (Omphis), King of Taxila, surrendered to Alexander; Alexander restored Porus to power after being impressed by him
• Alexander defeated Glauganikai, a 37-town tribal republic (Glachukayanaka)
• Alexander's troops refused to advance any further when he reached Beas, forcing him to retire
• He constructed 12 large stone altars on the northern banks of Beas to mark the farthest point of his march
• Alexander spent 19 months in India before dying at Babylon in 323 BC
• Alexander's conquest opened up four unique communication channels to Europe, three of which were land-based and one of which was sea-based
• Gandhara established a cosmopolitan school of art, which was characterised by sensual painting and lasted until the Gupta period
• Weakening the petty states also prepared the way for Chandragupta Maurya's unification of north India
• The mission, on the other hand, had the direct impact of annihilating tribes that had survived earlier ages

Causes of Failure of Republican States

• The republican states failed to survive because of reasons such as they lacked unity of command
• There were internal differences and divisions in the council of ministers, and they lacked the capability of swift decision making
• The geographical location of the Republican states were also important limitations
• There was a lack of natural resources and fertile soil etc

Magadha's Ascension to Empire

• Magadha became to be the most powerful state of the period, comprising the erstwhile districts of Patna, Gaya, and Shahabad
• The slow progress that had been going on since the Vedic era culminated in the establishment of the Magadhian empire under the Nandas and Mauryans
• Alluvial Fertile Plain is available in the region boosting agricultural production
• A number of perennial rivers were flowing through the Magadha region; as a result of this, water resources were available in plenty
• The Magadha climate was also suitable for agriculture
• The huge agricultural surplus was available
• The arts & crafts were also in the developed stage because of huge internal & external demand
• The important trade routes of North India passed through the Magadha region; Tamralipti (Bengal) is the most important port of the age
• This control over the routes of internal & external trade helped in the progress of Magadhian trade & commerce on the one hand & on the other hand; it enabled Magadhian rulers to tax the trade of other Kingdoms

Military Strength of Magadha

• Natural protection was available to the Magadha capitals; Rajagraha, the early capital, was surrounded by five hills
• Pataliputra, the later capital, was bordered by three rivers (Ganges, Punpun, Son); Jaldurga was the name given to it (water fort)
• The availability of Iron mines in Magadha region (Rajmahal hills) allowed Magadhian rulers to use Iron weapons on a large scale
• The forest resources were also available
• Elephants found only in the forests of eastern India enhanced their military strength immensely

Socio-Cultural Strength

• Magadha was located outside the pale of holy Aryavarta so the varna ashrama dharma system & other Brahmanical ideas were yet to be well-entrenched
• There was a comparatively lesser influence of Brahmanical order in this region
• In the absence of rigidity of the varnashrama dharma system, the Magadhian rulers could recruit their soldiers from all the varnas

Role of Magadhian Rulers

• Magadhian monarchs such as Bimbisara, Ajathashatru, Sishunag, Mahapadmananda, Chandragupta Maurya, and Ashoka all made significant contributions to the growth of the Magadhian empire

The Haryanka dynasty

• Bimbisara's grandfather founded it around 566 BC, although it is Bimbisara who is credited with its establishment

Bimbisara (544 BC-492 BC)

• He was a contemporary of Buddha and invaded Anga (east Bihar) to take control of trade routes to the southern kingdoms
• Its capital was Rajgir (Girivaraja)
• Sreniya was another name for him
• He was the first monarch to have a permanent army in history
• He wanted to create matrimonial partnerships in order to strengthen his political standing
• Kosaladevi (Prasenjit's sister and the daughter of the King of Kosala), Chellana, and Khema (daughter of the king of Modra, Punjab) were his three brides
• He was devising a strategy for conquest and expansion; The invasion of Anga was Bimbisara's most noteworthy conquest
• He'd put in place a system that was both efficient and effective
• Three categories of senior officers were formed: executive, military, and judicial

Ajatashatru (492 BC-460 BC)

• Ajatshatru, Bimbisara's son, is suspected of assassinating his father and stealing the kingdom
• He was the Haryanka dynasty's most powerful and ferocious ruler
• Kosala was annexed by him (ruled by Prasenjit)
• He first had a falling out with his maternal uncle Prasenjit, who was enraged at Bimbisara's treatment
• He requested that Ajatashatru returns to the Kashi area, which had been given to his mother as a dowry; Ajatashatru refused, and Prasenjit agreed to leave Kashi with Magadha only after a fierce battle
• He devised military weapons, making him unstoppable in war
• He devised a war engine capable of launching stones like catapults (Mahashilakantaka)
• He built a mace-wielding mass-murdering chariot (Rathamusala)

Udayin (460-444 BC)

• At the confluence of the Ganga and the Son rivers, he constructed Pataliputra, a new capital
• Udayin is one of five patricidal successor monarchs; in 413 BC, the people of Magadha deposed the last of the five and Shishunaga, a Viceroy of Benaras, was chosen to the throne

The Shishunaga dynasty

• Shishunaga had previously served in Varanasi (Banaras) as a Viceroy/Amatya (high-ranking official), and it is assumed that the people of Magadha were enraged by Udayin's successors' successive parricides
• According to Sri Lankan history, during Nagadasaka's reign, the people of Magadha revolted and established Sisunaga, an amatya (minister), who was crowned king
• For the time being, he relocated the capital to Vaishali
• Shishunaga's greatest achievement was defeating Avanti (Pradyota Dynasty) and incorporating it into Magadha

Kalasoka

• He was Sisunaga's child
• The capital of the Kalasoka was relocated to Pataliputra
• In Vaishali, he presided over the Second Buddhist Council
• During the Nanda dynasty's accession to the throne, he was assassinated

Nanda dynasty (345 BCE – 321 BCE)

• It is one of the first non-Kshatriya dynasties in India
• The Nandas are credited with establishing India's first empire
• When Mahapadma Nanda strengthened his dominance by bringing a victory prize from Kalinga, a depiction of the Jina, he erected it; He claimed to be the Ekarat, the one and only monarch who had conquered everything before him

Rise of Mahajanapadas

• India's history is appropriately regarded as significant from the sixth to the fourth century BC
• We can observe how earlier shifts matured to add a new dimension to political processes that were strongly rooted in people's changing material lives at the time
• Between these periods, a new sort of society emerged in the Ganga valley as a result of the agrarian environment
• People were able to become self-sufficient and stay on their property due to excess provided by new agricultural equipment and implements
• Large states with towns arose as a result

Factors behind the rise of mahajanapadas

• The rise of Mahajanapadas has the outcome of the combined effect of a number of political, socio-cultural & economic factors
• By the 6th century B.C, remarkable progress had taken place in Agriculture, Arts and Crafts, as well as trade and commerce
• A huge amount of surplus was available in the 6th century B.C
• Through taxes, the kings could mobilize huge sources to maintain a large army and to look after the needs of the administration
• With the help of their politico-military strength, large entities could be created & maintained

Republics of Ancient Age

• Hereditary rulers controlled certain mahajanapadas, while republican or oligarchical administrations led by people's representatives or nobles dominated others
• The non-monarchical clans were ruled by the Vajjis confederacy of eight clans, the most powerful of which were the Lichchavis, who ruled from their capital at Vaishali
• Essential Elements of Politico Administrative Systems of Republics are
  • The Head of the state was elected
  • At times, a collegiate form of govt administered republics

Mahapadma Nanda

• His forefathers and mothers are unknown
• He was the son of the last Sisunaga monarch and a Sudra lady, according to the Puranas
• His other titles include "Sarva Kashtriyantaka" (Kshatriya Destroyer) and "Ekrat." During his rule, the empire expanded
• From the Kuru country in the south to the Godavari Valley in the east, and from Magadha to the Narmada in the north, it covered a large area
• He ruled over a number of nations, including Kalinga
• Kosala was bought by him
• By assigning officials on a regular basis, he ensured that taxes were collected in a systematic manner
• He also completed a significant amount of irrigation work

Dhanananda

• The last of the Nanda rulers, he was the last of the Nanda kings
• In Greek literature, he is known as Agrammes or Xandrames
• Alexander invaded North-Western India during his reign, but owing to the refusal of his troops; he was unable to advance towards the Gangetic plains
• His father had left him a vast fortune
• As a result, he ascended to the position of a great monarch
• According to mythology, he is one of Mahapadma Nanda's 8 or 9 sons
• As a result of his onerous tax collection methods, he lost favour with his countrymen
• His anti-Kshatriya position, paired with his Sudra ancestry, earned him a great number of adversaries
• Chandragupta Maurya and Chanakya eventually conquered him, establishing the Maurya Empire in Magadha

Foreign Invasions and Persian Conquests of India

• Northwestern India was cut off from the rest of India around the sixth century BC, and because of its political ties to the Achaemenid Empire, it had stronger ties to Persian Civilization
• In 530 BC, Cyrus (Persia's Achaemenid ruler) crossed the Hindukush Mountains to collect tributes from the Kamboja, Gandhara, and trans-Indus tribes
• The Mauryas looked forward to the Persian Empire in terms of imperial ambitions
• The adoption of the Kharosthi script in the North-West, a regional variety of Aramaic written from the right, might be a vestige of Persian influence

Alexander's Invasion

• Alexander, son of Philip of Macedonia (Greece), invaded India in 326 BC. Taxila

British Solution for Modernising Indian Society

• The development of society could be achieved with good laws, efficient administration and the establishment of a good government
• British treated Bengal as a laboratory and conducted experiments in the field of administration

Critical Analysis of British Policies

• As a tool for controlling India, the British formulated and used the idea of legality
• The main objectives of the British administration in India was the perpetual British rule and the maintenance of law and order
• British administration in India was based on the Civil Service, the Army, & the Police