Adolescent Discrimination and Racial Identity

The Rise and Fall of the Student Worker

• Prior to 1925, most teenagers from less affluent families left school between 12 and 15 to work full-time.
• Adolescents were either students or workers, but not both, depending on social class.
• Secondary education became more widespread, more young people stayed in school longer and fewer dropped out to work.
• In 1940, only about 3% of high school students worked during the school year.
• Part-time jobs for American high school students rose dramatically during the 1970s and working during the school year became a way of life.
• Students holding jobs during the school year began to reverse about 40 years ago for several reasons
• Schools started requiring more from their students such as graduation requirements
• Students were taking Advanced Placement (AP) courses, which had homework demands
• Students wanted to join sports, clubs, and volunteer rather than after-school jobs
• Adolescents' high demand in the workplace led employers to hire unemployed adults instead of high school students.
• Immigration brought even more workers to these jobs.
• Tech growth expanded leisure opportunities for teens, drawing them away from working.
• Leisure activities became more inexpensive, reducing teens' motivation to work

The Adolescent Workplace Today

• The majority of teenagers are employed in the retail and service industries
• Older teens hold formal jobs (retail, restaurant)
• Younger teens hold informal jobs (babysitting, yard work)
• Teenagers rural areas (farmland) are more likely to be employed in agricultural occupations, compared to urban or suburban teenagers.
• About 60% of employed 8th-graders work in babysitting or yard work.
• Adolescent jobs are usually repetitive, monotonous, and intellectually unchallenging.
• Some adolescent jobs can be stressful or dangerous, involving intense time pressure and potential for injury.
• Most adolescent jobs offer limited opportunities to learn new or higher-level skills, but even menial jobs can be satisfying.
• Adolescents in positions of responsibility they feel more responsible

Employment and Adolescent Development

• Whether working helps adolescents develop a sense of responsibility
• Assumptions that working builds character and prepares teens for adulthood are not supported by research and some research finds high rates of misconduct on the job, especially without adult supervision.
• Holding a job may provide the chance to learn how to budget, save, and spend money wisely.
• It depends on employment nature
• Adolescents in jobs that are given genuine responsibility and challenging tasks are more likely to feel mature, competent, and dependable.
• Adolescents where work is repetitive, stressful, or unchallenging, is unlikely to gain very little from it.
• Working a job may make you more responsible, but it's not guaranteed.
• Whether working interferes with other activities such as school
• A 20-hour minimum job typically doesn't interfere with school.
• Working more than that leads to less engagement with school.
• Adolescents less interested in school choose to work longer hours, leading to further disengagement.
• Working long hours takes an especially bad toll on achievement among families of White and Asian students from middle-class.
• If the job is over 20 hours and the student intends to stay there after school, they are more likely to drop out of high school to stay at that job.
• Whether promotes the development of undesirable behaviors such as drug and alcohol use
• Employment during adolescence doesn't deter delinquent behavior, but several studies connect working long hours with increases in aggression, school misconduct, minor delinquency, and precocious sexual activity.
• Rates of smoking, drinking, and drug use are higher among teenage workers than nonworkers, especially when working long hours.
• Drug and alcohol use is more common in adolescents who work under high stress.
• Working long hours strains adolescent's relationships with parents, leading to problem behavior.
• Extensive employment during the school year harms school performance:
• Students pay less attention in class and exert less effort on their studies.
• Students use strategies like taking easier courses, cutting corners on assignments, copying homework, and cheating.

Adolescents Free Time and Their Moods

• Adolescents in the US spend half of their waking hours in leisure activities.
• Teens report being in a better mood during leisure than during school or work.
• Assessments at a specific point in time may not reflect moods at other times
• Recollections of moods are not always accurate.

The Experience Sampling Method

• Experience Sampling Method (ESM): data is collected about adolescent's emotional states.
• Individuals are signaled and report their mood and activity, carrying electronic devices and signaled to report their company, activity, and feelings.
• ESM has been used to chart adolescents' moods, monitor their social relationships, and catalog their activities in greater detail than standard questionnaires.
• Early ESM studies used pagers and booklets for self-reporting over a week, with surveys completed each time signaled.

Adolescent moods

• In school:
• Moderate concentration, low motivation
• With family:
• More negative (5-7pm)
• With friends:
• Positive
• Least positive when alone
• Moderate motivation, low concentration
• Extracurriculars:
• High concentration and motivation

Adolescents and Screen Time

• New media prompts questions such as:
• How exposure to online sexual content encourges sexual activity
• Whether online gaming increases aggression
• Whether the growing use of electronic communication hinders social skill development and causes internet addiction.
• Media saturation:
• A lot of media and lives are saturated with media
• Media consumption is increasing.
• 93% of Americans go online daily.
• 75% use one or more social media sites.
• Popular sites include YouTube, Instagram, and Snapchat.
• 3/4 of adolescents have their own smartphone or access to one.
• Texting peaks in early and middle adolescence, then declines.
  • Teenagers average send 50 texts per day.
• 40% of American teenagers text and drive monthly.
• Adolescents average use nearly 9 hours of media daily, often using different media simultaneously.
• The quality of content depends on what they spend time on.
• Compulsive texting links to poorer school performance.
• Displacement:
• Media usage can displace other activities.
  • The worst activities to displace are sleep and physical activity.

Theories of Media Influence and Use

• Frequent parental phubbing can make adolescents depressed
• Three schools of thought exist concerning the media impact on adolescent development: Cultivation theory:
• Media exposure shapes adolescents’ knowledge, attitudes, values, and behavior.
• Playing videogames is thought to make adolescents more aggressive. Uses and gratifications approach:
• The media use emphasizes the active roles users play in selecting the media
• Adolescents choose their media exposure
• Individuals choose media consistent with their interests, blending what adolescents are exposed to and what adolescents do or think
• Adolescents preexisting interests and motives shape their media choices. Media practice model:
• The media use emphasizes adolescents' choice and interpretation of media, shaping its impact
• Adolescents preferences and their media exposure affect each other
• Example of responses to beer commercial: One 13 year old thinks that’s how he will party when older, another sees the same commercial and thinks beer is bad
• The ways in which media does/does not affect adolescents depends the ways in media experienced and interpreted

Social media and socializing

• Correlation refers to when two things go hand in hand.
• Causation refers to one thing actually causes the other.
• Reverse causation refers to two thing relationship due not to the first thing causing the second, but reverse instead
• Spurious causation refers to two thing relationship correlation with a third factor

Social media and socializing

• Positive aspects:
• Content can improve mood for 2/3 of adolescents.
• Feel closer with someone (60% have said this)
• Stay in touch with friends
• Increase in empathy and civic engagement
• Easier to initiate and flirt with potential romantic partners
• Easier for socially anxious adolescents to communicate with friends online Negative aspects:
• Content can lead to arguments or ended friendships (25% led to this)
• Seeing negative and hurtful content about self or others (almost all adolescents)
• Discussion boards linke to more anxiety and depression.
• Viewing risky behavior is associated with greater risk-taking.
• Opportunity can misunderstand context
• Fear of missing out (FOMO) can lead to less sleep, interfering with sleep.
• How social media used to determine the relationship impact.
• Using social media to stay in touch with friends is not a threat to teens' mental health, and improve perspective-taking skills
• Time spent on Instagram and Snapchat reports more support from friends
• Twitter and Facebook, and different discussion boards report higher rates of anxiety and depression
• Socially Rich vs. Socially Poor
• Self-concept isn't greatly affected by feeling supported at school, with daily limited use of the internet
• If you don't feel very supported in school, the more media you use the worse the feeling of unsupportiveness
• Social media make lonely adolescents feel ever worse

Problematic Social Media Use

• Internet addiction / Compulsive Internet use (CIU): disorder defined by six pathological symptoms.
  • Salience (believing online is the most important thing in life).
  • Mood change (mood fluctuates as a function of internet experiences).
  • Tolerance (needing increasing internet time to be satisfied).
  • Withdrawal (experiencing negative feelings when prevented from being online).
  • Conflict (internet has caused problems in relationships or in life).
• Problematic or excessive social media use is associated with depression, sleep difficulties, loneliness, procrastination, social anxiety, and ADHD.
• Sexting:
  • Sending sexually explicit internet content, such as photos, with 20% of US adolescents having sexted
  • Sexting can be flirtatious, consensual, and often done by request.
  • Some report feeling pressured by a partner to do so
  • Adolescents who become sexually active earlier also start sexting at a young age.
  • Sexting victims of bullying have reported depression
  • Sex-related social media harassment relates bullying
  • Teens who engage in unsolicited sexting are more prone to other sorts of risky activity

The Adolescent Identity Crisis- Erikson's Theoretical Framework

• Erikson viewed development as moving through 8 psychosocial crises over a lifespan.
• Establishing coherent sense of identity is the crisis of Identity versus identity diffusion.
• The normative crisis characterizes the fifth stage of psychosocial development, common during adolescent
• Resolution the central source to resolving Identity versus identity diffusion is adolescent's with others.
• Development of identity in social and mental
• Adolescents’ identity comes mutual recognition between the teen persons and the response of significant others

Problems in Identity Development

• Problems result when earlier crises are unresolved or adolescents lack the required moratorium.
• Moratorium: free from excessive obligations/responsibilities, allowing role/personality experimentation.
• Erikson identified three key problems: identity diffusion, identity foreclosure, and negative identity.
• Identity diffusion: incoherent, disjointed, incomplete sense of self:
• Low/absent with commitment and exploration.
• Disruptions in sense of time
• Excessive self-consciousness to the point that it's difficult to make decisions.
• Difficulties forming intimate relationships and concerns over sexuality.
• Identity diffusion impacts identity, autonomy, intimacy, sexuality, and achievement
• Identity foreclosure:
• Bypassing exploration/experimentation needed before healthy sense of identity.
• Premature commitment to a role or series of roles, settling on a final identity.
• Roles revolve around goals set for them by parents/guardians.
• Identity foreclosure is an interruption of identity development, limiting full potential discovery.
• Negative Identity:
• Adoption of "negative identity" signals problems with identity development.
• e.g., Daughter of DA gets in trouble
• This identity doesn't foster healthy development.
• Attempt to forge self-definition where establishing acceptable identity is difficult.
• Likely in when trying and failing to receive positive recognition from those who are important in their lives

Determining an Adolescent's Identity Status

• Identity status: point in identity development process characterizing an adolescent at given time
• Individuals in identity achievement are psychologically healthier.
• Individuals in Moratorium score highest on anxiety, show high conflict over authority, and are least rigid and least authoritarian.
• Foreclosed individuals are the most authoritarian, and prejudiced, and have the highest need for social approval, the lowest level of autonomy, and the greatest closeness to their parents.
• Those in Identity diffusion have the highest level of psychological, behavioral, and interpersonal problems: socially withdrawn, more likely to engage in antisocial behavior, and lowest intimacy with peers.
• Authoritative homes support identity achievement
• Parental warmth and encouragement are important
• Identity achievement is associated with agency/ Confidence in decisions and overcoming of obstacles
• A lack of parental warmth links leads leads commitment problems
• A lack of parental support leads leads lack of exploration

The Development of Ethnic Identity

• Ethnic socialization: Understanding of ethnic/racial background.
• Parents teach children about ethnic/racial identity and experiences within broader society due to their background
• Develop ethnic identity involve prejudice, feeling under-represented, or feeling different from non-similar backgrounds
• Identity exploration starts in middle adolescence
• With time exploration declines, individuals make to develop consolidated identities
• Strong ethnic Identity better for mental health than identity is more diffuse, helps create sense of meaning in life, strong ethnic pride leads to higher self-esteem, stronger self efficiency, better mental health, and academic achievement
• Contact with peers like them increases those to develop positive feelings about their ethnicity
• Ethnic minority youth have highest academic achievement with are associated with their group

Influenced by Social Contexts

• Ethnic identity focuses on 3 themes understanding/valuing their society
• Encourages positive thinking may create stronger sense of ethnic identity
• Positive attitudes towards own group leads to attitudes for other groups
• New immigrants high in academic levels
• Foreign born ethnic minority youth shows better success in schools
• American deals do better in school, known as "American Paradox"

Discrimination and Its Effects

• Influenced by ethnic identity:
• How much people feel discriminated against
• How much they are affected by It
• Multidimensional model of racial identity

1. How important race is for Identity

• If centrality is high then less adverse effects come by discrimination

2. Private and who the member is.

• Low regards leads seeing negative effects better
• Experience leads discrimination lowers

3. How community feels about your race. It affects you in life and family

• Social context for youth causes, stereotypes, mixed messaged about identity, discrimination, and it effects in family
• Negative psychological effects are:
• Limited control for learning and schools

Psychological and Physical Consequences of Discrimination

• Identity development is shaped by social contexts, which often include racial stereotypes, discrimination, and messages about assimilation.
• Discrimination experiences increase.
• Adolescence, school transtion
• Experience negatively affects mental health
• Discrimination affect all identity
• Identity appearance gender
• Can lead to depression and mental health and conduct with issues.

Protective Factors Against Discrimination

• Reduces the effects of discrimination, like cross-ethnic friendships
• control over education achievement role in school
• Causes less control and higher rates of depression

Multidimensional Model of Racial Identity

• Racial centrality is on a person's identity.
• Private with their racial identity
• Perceived what others think with race
• This shifts during as their self race changes.
• Stability over time
• Shifts, changes and groups
• Gender can have diffently effects
• Boy faces more frequent suspicion and police profiling.
  • Girls experience ways that is are more harmful
• Their hair touches against them without consent
• As a result, most are see as less attractive for most boys.
• How people view someone

Coping with Discrimination

• The best way to deal with ethnic issues, pride, or hard work
• Matters of socialization. It's protective but the strong warning can hard people
• Higher ethnic helps reduce the problems online

Awareness of Institutional Racism

• As adolescents age, they become more aware of systemic inequalities
• Institutional racism can lead to motivation, leading to better performance and long-term success.
• Parents should discuss racial backgrounds

Gender-Role Development

• Gender-Role Socializations During Adolescents
• Gender Intesnification Hypothesis: they need the behaviour to be sex.
• Adolescent drive more with these type of roles
  • Adolescente that more more with it are more looked at
• Adopting is that way becomes more easy.

Notes on Gender Roles

• Gender Stereotypes and Behavior
• Some are none exist but most beliefs are to be normal
  • They Study the effect that can create
• Early adolescenes make people conform to Sex. Can also cause development pushes for what make most types for teenages.
• The envrioment plays more role than the hormonal change

Gender Equality Impacts

• Countires that follow gender equality more, can create better lifestyle.
• Gender equlity predicts more of wealth being that way
• Adolescnets friend those with more common gender roels Pressuring the way gender can effect a child
• Atypical gender teen that aren't femine can be come a victim
• More nonconforminng teens can be too

Gender Nonconformity and Mental Health Risk

• High mental hekalths for non confirming teens
• Adhereing to normal help with harrasment

Gender Stress

• The pressure might make some teens develop in a gender role.
• Some that show change are:
• Those that are in the family

Masculinity and Feminity

• Those that in gender role get more acceptted. But not when doing boy showing woman ones
• Those that are heaily showing more like ones lead to make more like do risky moves.
• Girls adhering have the problems

Notes on Masculinity and Femininity

• Variability in Masculinity and Femininity
• Individuals change what they act
  • Strong
  • Highs
• It is better for gender to be same over time
• Gender Stereotype Expectations and Psychological Impact
• Gendes are hight with each types of change is good they get well and but for boys they get made fun
• Some reduce femine but change gender reduce for men. However woman can get same gender

Gender Issues

• Boys face the issues
• Women can do masculine and not get hate

Autonomy- Freud's psychoanalytic theory

• Adolescents detach from their parents and emotional focus to peers romantic relationships to others
• The process severing the ties.

Emotional Autonomy

• Can't get a support so they don't support
• Relationship has normal issues
• Transition goes away, the relationship
• Autonomy is to change relationship
• Indivduation is graduam for a sense of self
• Start when baby but ends at the end
• Get out of the small relationship
• Better is to take responsibility with choices.

Relationship help those

• Get of need family
• Get more independent
• But it has cause to get problems
• The control is too hard
• Support has way better mental
• Control of the people around you
• Its bad to get this. To try to show you and there brain, they can be difficult
• Bad behaviour can come

Parents Behaviours

• Teens are effected by who is around or their mental state Anxiety and depression comes when parents become strict Most do the other stuff
• Better to become a team
• Change can make problems to the system

Decisions

• Reasoning comes to better of viewing things Helpful weighing the information
• Get a point of view to help
• Has improves making skills
• This can work also with rules

Self Regualtion

• Improves with helping
  • Some help change the way it effects the body
• Making way better choices Balance what going good v bad.
• You can only be drawn to something
• You can develop to people

Parenting Styles

• They can help with teens.
• Weak control cause risk
• Meditation can help with self.

Influenced

• Who you get advice
• Peers short term, day to day, social problems
• Parents with longterm information questions

Stress to Peer Changes

• Pressure is really strong for 14 and it goes away
• More for bad stuff.

Teens change

• Teens are more aware and want to fit in
• They all link for more from each, the risk makes things happens
• Kids change bad and makes adult have better life.

Difference between those who are more and less?

• Girls are Asias are since their groups

How Can Be Helped

• Those that need assistance help.
• Family that listen help.

Moral Development during Adolescence

• The morality become more complex
• Growth can help move though it.
• Allows selfish problems

Behaviour

• Good behaviour help
• A lot of problems can happen or violence. It can cause
• The main job is choices with risky things.
• It helps to not cause problems that can lead to problems.

Social Issues and Actions to Create The Situation

• Social becomes good during most.
• It causes people to do great and nice.
• The things, brain and help all help create and keep good thing going.

Helpfulness and Parenting

• Help and parenting can create empathy and emotion good.
• Also it is caused better actions when done
• It's hard.
• Good with age.

Explore the impact of discrimination on adolescents, covering increased experiences, potential consequences (or lack thereof), and coping mechanisms. It also discusses racial identity models and their evolving components, such as private and public regard. The content further highlights specific forms of discrimination, especially those affecting Black girls, and touches on the biological effects of chronic discrimination.