Acquiring Knowledge: Methods & Beliefs

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge

• Methods used to discover answers in ways a person can know things or answer questions

Method of Tenacity

• Information accepted as true because it has always been believed or because superstition supports it
• Ideas and beliefs held onto simply because accepted as facts for a long time
• Also known as belief perseverance
• More frequent exposure to statements increases belief in them
• Based on superstition, representing beliefs reacted to as fact
• Widely accepted beliefs are hard to change, even when facing contradictory evidence

Method of Intuition

• Relies on a hunch or "gut feeling" as information accepted as true
• Often used when without data or rational justification
• Lacks mechanism for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge

Method of Authority

• Relies on information or answers from an expert in the subject area
• Authorities can be biased, favoring a particular point of view or orientation
• Answers from experts could represent subjective, personal opinion rather than true expert knowledge
• Assumes expertise in one area generalizes to other topics
• Accepts statements without questioning accuracy

Method of Faith

• Variant of authority where people have unquestioning trust in the authority figure
• Accepts information from authority without doubt or challenge
• Children trusting parents or religious people trusting leaders are examples
• "Experts" are not always experts

The Rational Method (Rationalism)

• Seeks answers by logical reasoning, using known facts or assumptions to reach a conclusion or answer a question
• In logical reasoning, premise statements describe presumed facts or assumptions
• An argument is a set of premise statements logically combined to yield a conclusion
• If premise statements are true and logic is sound, the conclusion is guaranteed correct
• Answers must satisfy logic rules before acceptance as true
• Method begins after presenting premise statements

Limitations of Rationalism

• Conclusion is not necessarily true unless both premise statements are true, even in valid logical arguments
• People are not particularly good at logical reasoning, leading to mistakes using rational method
• Logic is a way of establishing truth in the absence of evidence

The Empirical Method (Empiricism)

• Uses observation, personal experience, or direct sensory experience
• Perceptions drastically altered by prior knowledge, expectations, feelings, or beliefs
• Possible to make accurate observations but then misinterpret them
• Time-consuming and sometimes dangerous

The Scientific Method

• Acquires knowledge using observations to develop a hypothesis
• Uses the hypothesis to make logical predictions empirically tested by additional systematic observations
• New observations typically lead to a new hypothesis, continuing the cycle

Step 1 of the Scientific Method

• Often begins with casual or informal observation where generalisations beyond the actual observation tend to occur

Inductive Reasoning or Induction

• Involves using a relatively small set of specific observations as the basis for forming a general statement about a larger set of possible observations

Step 2 of the Scientific Method

• Form a tentative answer or explanation (hypothesis)
• Begins by identifying other factors or variables that change or have different values for different individuals associated with the observation
• Explanation that one considers to be the most plausible or the one that interests you the most is chosen at this point
• Hypothesis is a statement that describes or explains a relationship between variables
• A hypothesis is not a final answer but rather a proposal to be tested and evaluated

Step 3 of the Scientific Method

• Use the hypothesis to generate a testable prediction
• Involves taking the hypothesis and applying it to a specific, observable, real-world situation
• Induction involves an increase from few to many
• Deduction involves decrease from many to a specific few
• Deductive reasoning or deduction uses general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples
• Begins with a general statement (hypothesis as a universal premise statement) and make specific deductions that must logically follow if the hypothesis is true

Step 4 of the Scientific Method

• Evaluate the prediction by making systematic, planned observations (empirical method)
• The actual research or data collection phase
• The goal is to provide a fair and unbiased test of the research hypothesis by observing whether the prediction is correct
• The research study is an empirical test of the research hypothesis

Step 5 of the Scientific Method

• Use the observations to support, refute, or refine the original hypothesis
• Observations to hypothesis and prediction results lead to more observations, which leads to another hypothesis
• The scientific method is not a linear process, but a circular or spiral process

Other Elements of the Scientific Method

• In addition to the basic process that makes up the scientific method, a set of overriding principles governs scientific investigation

Science is Empirical

• Answers are obtained by making observations
• Requires empirical verification
• Involves structured or systematic observation which is determined by the procedures and techniques that are used in the research study
• Observations are systematic in that they are performed under a specified set of conditions for accurate answering of the question

Science is Public

• The method makes observations available for evaluation by others, especially other scientists
• Others should be able to repeat the same step-by-step process leading to the observations so that they can replicate the observations
• Replication, or repetition, the intent is to test the validity of the original study
• Replication will either support the original results or cast doubt on the original study by showing that the original result is not easily repeated
• By replicating/subjecting to peer review = no fraud or errors

Science is Objective

• Observations are structured so that the researcher's biases and beliefs do not influence the outcome of the study
• Bias often comes from belief in a particular theory, and then expectations about the outcome of the study

Pseudosciences

• A set of ideas based on nonscientific theory, faith, and belief, but presented as science
• Lacks some of the key components that are essential to scientific research

Science versus Pseudoscience

• Common set of features differentiate them
• Primary distinction is based on the notion of testable and refutable hypotheses
• Theory is scientific only when it is able to describe exactly what observable findings would demonstrate that it is wrong, specify how could be refuted, negative results are acknowledged and respected
• Pseudoscience typical response to negative results is to discount them entirely or explain them away without altering original theory
• Science demands an objective and unbiased evaluation of all the available evidence
• Pseudoscience tends to rely on subjective evidence such as testimonials and anecdotal reports of success
• Science actively tests and challenges its own theories and adapts the theories when new evidence appears.
• Pseudoscience tends to ignore nonsupporting evidence, criticism is an attack, tend to be stagnant and remain unchanged
• Scientific theories are grounded in past science
• Scientific systems are based on established theories and uses principles that have solid empirical support
• Pseudoscience tends to create new disciplines and techniques that are unconnected to established theories and empirical evidence

Quantitative Research

• The research process based on measuring variables for individual participants to obtain scores
• Scores are usually numerical values, which are submitted to statistical analysis for summary and interpretation
• Examines variables that typically vary in quantity (size,magnitude, duration, or amount), or that are qualitative in nature
• Qualitative variable measurements are transformed into numbers and statistics

Qualitative Research

• Based on making observations that are summarized and interpreted in a narrative report
• Involves extensive note taking
• Summarizes observations and notes in a narrative report that attempts to describe and interpret the phenomenon being studied
• Often used by social anthropologists, to understand/describe social structure and customs

Steps of the Research Process

Step 1

• Find a Research Idea by selecting a topic and searching the literature to find an unanswered question
• Involves two parts selecting a general topic area (human dev, perception, addiction) and reviewing the published research reports in that area to identify the relevant variables and find unanswered question

Step 2

• Form a Hypothesis if question concerns relationship between variables
• Forms tentative answer to question
• Skips step 2 if unanswered question simply asks for a description of a variable or variables

Step 3

• Determine How You Will Define and Measure Your Variables
• Variables identified in the research hypothesis must be defined in a manner that makes it possible to measure them by some form of empirical observation
• Transforms the hypothesis into a specific research prediction
• How variables will be defined and measured often depends on the individuals to be measured

Step 4

• Identify the Participants or Subjects for the Study, Decide How They Will Be Selected, and Plan for Their Ethical Treatment
• Individuals taking part in the research studies are called participants if they are human and subjects if they are nonhuman
• Researcher responsibility to plan for safety and well-being of the participants
• Ethics may influence the decision about which individuals to select (ie pain study adults only)
• Participants may affect ethical decisions i.e children = stronger obligation on the researcher)
• Decision on whether you will place any restrictions on the characteristics of the participants must be made

Step 5

• Select a Research Strategy by deciding on the general approach you will take to evaluate your research hypothesis
• Deciding the research strategy is usually determined by one or two factors being the type of question asked which can dictate the specific research strategy you must use and ethical considerations or availability etc

Step 6

• Select a Research Design, making decisions about the specific methods and procedures you will use to conduct the research study
• Determined by whether research question calls for detailed examination of one individual or by looking at the average behaviour of a large group

Step 7

• Conduct the Study by implementing all earlier decisions about manipulating, observing, measuring, controlling, and recording all aspects in either a lab or field, using individual or groups

Step 8

• Evaluate the Data by using various statistical methods to examine and evaluate the data, whether results from specific participants can be generalized to the rest of the population

Step 9

• Report the Results making them public and accompanying with a written report describing what was done, found and how findings were interpreted
• Two reasons to report research results include results becoming part of the general knowledge base and research procedure being replicable

Step 10

• Refine or Reformulate Your Research Idea with the opportunity to extend original question into new domains and make question more precise
• Results that support a hypothesis lead to new questions by one of two routes testing the boundaries of the result or refining the original research question

Theory

• Through observing events, we arrive at an explanation about the cause-and-effect relationship between them
• A theory is a statement or series of statements that organize and explain of observations and ideas, and predict events not yet observed
• To be considered good, must meet three conditions of parsimony, precision, and testability
• Parsimony is the ability to explain many results with a few concepts.
• Precision involves a clear understanding of the theory for investigators to agree about its predictions
• Testability makes predictions that can be tested empirically (falsifiable)

Key Points About Theories

• No single confirming finding proves a theory correct
• Findings either support a theory or not
• The more data that supports a theory, the more confidence in that theory
• No single disconfirming finding leads to theory rejection; it leads to further testing or to an adjustment of the theory

Identifying a Topic Area

• Starts with identifying a general topic area that is interesting
• Exploring previous research in that topic area to find specific idea or question

Common Sources of Research Topics

• Includes personal interests and curiosities based on own interests, concerns, and curiosities
• Include defining an interest area through particular groups of individuals, behaving, general topic
• Casual observation of behaviour of people or animals daily, that attract your attention and arouses curiosity
• Report of others' observations through formal or informal (news reports, novels or TV programs) sources
• Practical problems or questions encountered in daily life or other people's problems or questions

Applied Research

• Intended to answer practical questions or solve practical problems

Basic Research

• Intended to answer theoretical questions or gather knowledge simply for the sake of new knowledge

Behavioural Theories

• Watch for theories offering explanations for behaviour or try to explain why different environmental factors lead to different behaviours
• Good theory usually predicts behaviour in new situations
• Can testthe predictions of a theory can be a good topic area for research
• When two opposing theories make different predictions, creates good opportunity for research

Searching the Existing Research Literature

• Two basic goals exist to gain general familiarity with the current research in your specific area of interest
• Goal also include to find a small set of research studies to serve as the basis for the research idea and to identify the gap that the study will attempt to fill in published reports defining the current state of knowledge

The Literature

• The mass of published information worldwide

Tips for Starting a Review of the Literature

• Do your homework by collecting background information if you are starting research on an identified research topic
• Only need a basic solid understanding of current knowledge rather than complete knowledge of the topic
• Narrow topic from general area to very specific idea
• Keep an open mind as beginning with a specific, preconceived research could find the specific question is already answered
• Also hard to find relevant information or equipment, time, or participants to test the idea
• Goal is to develop one research question and find info that is relevant to that question, discarding irrelevant items
• Take one step at a time
• Perform meta analysis which is reviewing and statistical analyse of past reseatch to determine consistency

Primary Source

• Firsthand report in which the authors describe their own observations and did the actual research
• Information includes why the research was done, how it was conducted, what were the results, how those results were interpreted
• Examples, empirical journal articles and conference presentation

Secondary Source

• Secondhand report in which the authors discuss someone else's observations, did not participate in the research or observations being discussed
• Examples, books and reviews

Literature Search

• Process of gaining a general familiarity with the current research conducted in a subject area
• Process includes finding a small set of journal articles to provide the justification or foundation for new research and to provide intro for the research study
• Requires finding a set of articles to organise into a logical argument
• Conducted by primary resources relevant to the topic by searching subjects, author names and online databases

Screening Articles

• To help make the selection process more efficient:
• Screen by title, then abstract
• Read whole document if relevant
• Use references from articles to find more relevant documents

Conducting Lit Search

• Begins when is comfortable/knowledgable with the topic, and found resent studies justifying new research

Components of a Research Article

• Introduction discusses previous research forming the foundation for the current research study and a clear statement of the problem being investigated
• Method section presents details concerning participants and the procedures used in the study
• Result section presents the detail of the is the statistical analysis
• Discussion section summarizes the results of the study and states conclusions, and noting any potential complications
• References must be cited

Characteristics of a Good Hypothesis

• Following four elements are considered to be important which are:
• A hypothesis is logical if founded in established theories or developed from the results of the previous research
• A hypothesis is testable if it must be possible to observe or measure all the variables involved regarding real situations, events, individuals
• A hypothesis is refutable, must obtain research results that run contrary to the hypothesis
• A hypothesis is positive statement about the existence of something, usually of a relationship, existence of difference, or of a treatment effect

Constructs or Hypothetical Constructs

• Attributes or mechanisms helping explain and predict behaviour

Theory in Behavioural Science

Set of statements about the mechanisms underlying a particular behavior

Operational Definitions

• Procedure for measuring a variable that cannot be observed directly
• Specifies a measurement procedure for measuring external, observable behaviour
• Uses measurement of the hypothetical construct
• Can be used
• Not same as the construct itself

Internal Validity

• Extent to which a study can establish a relationship between variables

External Validity

• Extent to which study results can be generalized beyond the specific study conditions to other populations,settings,and times

Consistency of a Relationship

• Achieved by demostarting the consistancy of a relationship between two measurement
• Validity and reliablility can be increased through Positive or Negative relationships of data (+1.00to-1.00)

Face Validity

• An subjective form of validity that concerns whether a measure superficially appears to measure what it claims to measure
• Is subjective and is difficult to quantify

Concurrent Validity Type of validity

• Demonstrated when score obtained from a new measure are directly related to scores obtained from a more established measure of same variable

Predictive Validity Type of validity

• Demonstrated when scores obtained from a measure accurately predict behavior according to a theory

Construct Validity Type of validity

• Demonstrated when scores obtained from a measurement behave exactly the same as the variable itself

Convergent Validity Value validity

• Demosntarted by strong relationship measured from to diffrent method

Validity of measurement

• degree to which the measurement process measures the variable it claims to measure
• The degree of stability or consistency of measurements, measured in identical settings

Face Validity

• unscientific form of validity that concerns whether a measure superficially measure what it claims to measure

Scales of Measurement

• categories used for individuals to measure their components; such as nominal (qualitiqtive diffrencess), ordina (ranking), intervqal (the same sized categories), and altityde

Validity of measurement

• degree to which the process accurately identifies what it claims to measure

Relaiability of measurement

Stability to provide identical resultants

Sampling Basics

• Selectin of indiduals

Types and Measures of Reliability:

Also