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Questions and Answers
Which statement accurately defines an acid?
Which statement accurately defines an acid?
- An acid is characterized by a negative charge.
- An acid donates H+ ions to a solution. (correct)
- An acid is a compound with a pH greater than 7.
- An acid absorbs H+ ions in a solution.
What does a higher pH value indicate about a solution?
What does a higher pH value indicate about a solution?
- The solution is more acidic.
- The solution has a higher concentration of H+ ions.
- The solution has a neutral pH.
- The solution is more alkaline. (correct)
How does the pH scale function mathematically?
How does the pH scale function mathematically?
- pH is a logarithmic scale based on powers of 10. (correct)
- pH = log [H+]
- pH increases with higher concentrations of H+ ions.
- pH = -10 [H+]
Which pH range represents normal human blood?
Which pH range represents normal human blood?
If a solution has a pH of 6, how does its acidity compare to a solution with a pH of 7?
If a solution has a pH of 6, how does its acidity compare to a solution with a pH of 7?
What characterizes a base in terms of hydrogen ions?
What characterizes a base in terms of hydrogen ions?
Which of the following best describes the function of buffers in the body?
Which of the following best describes the function of buffers in the body?
What is the typical pH value of most body fluids?
What is the typical pH value of most body fluids?
Which of the following statements is false about pH?
Which of the following statements is false about pH?
What is a potential consequence of prolonged vomiting?
What is a potential consequence of prolonged vomiting?
Which condition is characterized by excessive loss of hydrogen ions leading to alkalosis?
Which condition is characterized by excessive loss of hydrogen ions leading to alkalosis?
Which of the following metabolic processes requires the presence of oxygen?
Which of the following metabolic processes requires the presence of oxygen?
What type of injury results from the obstruction of blood flow, causing complete lack of oxygen delivery?
What type of injury results from the obstruction of blood flow, causing complete lack of oxygen delivery?
Which of the following describes free radicals?
Which of the following describes free radicals?
What is a common byproduct of anaerobic metabolism that can lead to acidosis?
What is a common byproduct of anaerobic metabolism that can lead to acidosis?
What is the term for the injury occurring due to the return of blood flow to a previously ischemic area?
What is the term for the injury occurring due to the return of blood flow to a previously ischemic area?
What type of cellular injury involves the damage of structural lipids?
What type of cellular injury involves the damage of structural lipids?
Which hormonal effect promotes the loss of hydrogen ions in the kidney, contributing to alkalosis?
Which hormonal effect promotes the loss of hydrogen ions in the kidney, contributing to alkalosis?
Which process primarily relies on mitochondrial oxygenation to generate ATP?
Which process primarily relies on mitochondrial oxygenation to generate ATP?
What characterizes hyperplasia in cellular responses?
What characterizes hyperplasia in cellular responses?
Which type of cellular change occurs in cardiac muscle cells?
Which type of cellular change occurs in cardiac muscle cells?
What is a primary visual indicator of coagulative necrosis?
What is a primary visual indicator of coagulative necrosis?
Which of the following cellular responses is classified as pre-neoplastic?
Which of the following cellular responses is classified as pre-neoplastic?
What is a consequence of lysosomal explosion during necrosis?
What is a consequence of lysosomal explosion during necrosis?
Which statement about hypertrophy and hyperplasia is true?
Which statement about hypertrophy and hyperplasia is true?
What processes lead to hydropic swelling in cells?
What processes lead to hydropic swelling in cells?
Which condition describes the adaptive transformation of tissue from one cell type to another?
Which condition describes the adaptive transformation of tissue from one cell type to another?
How does hypertrophy differ from hyperplasia?
How does hypertrophy differ from hyperplasia?
What is the main consequence of dysplasia in cellular changes?
What is the main consequence of dysplasia in cellular changes?
In smokers, which cellular change occurs in the airway epithelium?
In smokers, which cellular change occurs in the airway epithelium?
Which of the following best describes the term 'atrophy'?
Which of the following best describes the term 'atrophy'?
What is a significant effect of hypoxic injury on cells?
What is a significant effect of hypoxic injury on cells?
Which morphologic change is characterized by abnormal, non-adaptive cellular growth?
Which morphologic change is characterized by abnormal, non-adaptive cellular growth?
What leads to increased intracellular water accumulation in cells under stress?
What leads to increased intracellular water accumulation in cells under stress?
Which of the following accurately describes the role of buffering compounds in a solution?
Which of the following accurately describes the role of buffering compounds in a solution?
What limits the bicarbonate buffer system's ability to maintain pH?
What limits the bicarbonate buffer system's ability to maintain pH?
Which system provides rapid regulation of carbon dioxide levels in response to changes in acidity?
Which system provides rapid regulation of carbon dioxide levels in response to changes in acidity?
How does the renal system influence the bicarbonate buffer system?
How does the renal system influence the bicarbonate buffer system?
What happens to the bicarbonate buffer reaction if CO2 levels are increased?
What happens to the bicarbonate buffer reaction if CO2 levels are increased?
Which of the following is not a major buffering system in the body?
Which of the following is not a major buffering system in the body?
In metabolic acidosis, what is primarily occurring in the body?
In metabolic acidosis, what is primarily occurring in the body?
What role does hemoglobin play in the buffering systems of the body?
What role does hemoglobin play in the buffering systems of the body?
Which of the following statements about acidosis and alkalosis is false?
Which of the following statements about acidosis and alkalosis is false?
What is the main byproduct of metabolism that is critical for the bicarbonate buffering system?
What is the main byproduct of metabolism that is critical for the bicarbonate buffering system?
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Study Notes
Acids and Bases
- Acids donate H+ ions to solutions; bases absorb H+ ions.
- Bases are typically negatively charged, while double negatives indicate the base in comparisons with acids.
pH Scale
- pH measures acidity or alkalinity, with lower values indicating higher acidity and higher values indicating higher alkalinity.
- Scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 7 being neutral (most body fluids maintain pH around 7.35-7.45).
- pH is calculated as pH = -log [H+].
- A shift from pH 7 to pH 6 indicates a tenfold increase in acidity.
Buffers and Buffer Systems
- Buffers are compounds that stabilize pH by absorbing or donating H+ ions.
- Major buffering systems include:
- Proteins (intracellular and extracellular)
- Hemoglobin
- Phosphate (crucial in ATP metabolism)
- Bicarbonate (HCO3-/H2CO3) is the most important, regulating CO2 levels.
- Bicarbonate regulation involves:
- Respiratory system (minutes to hours)
- Renal system (hours to days)
Respiratory vs. Metabolic Acidosis/Alkalosis
- Respiratory acidosis/alkalosis relates to CO2 levels, while metabolic acidosis/alkalosis involves bicarbonate levels.
- Prolonged vomiting, GI suctioning, hyperaldosteronism, and diuretics can lead to metabolic alkalosis.
Patient Acid/Base Data
- Data to determine acid/base balance include arterial blood gases, bicarbonate levels, and pH.
- Normal ranges for pH: 7.35-7.45, bicarbonate: 22-26 mEq/L.
Aerobic vs. Anaerobic Metabolism
- Aerobic metabolism requires oxygen, involving glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
- Anaerobic metabolism occurs without oxygen and is less efficient in ATP production.
Hypoxic and Free Radical Injury
- Hypoxic injury results from insufficient oxygen, leading to potential irreversible damage and cell death.
- Reperfusion injury occurs when blood flow is restored, often causing inflammation.
- Free radicals are unstable and can damage cellular components like lipids, proteins, and DNA, leading to significant cellular injury.
Hydropic Swelling
- Hydropic swelling is the accumulation of water within cells due to ATP depletion, hindering Na/K pump function.
- Increased intracellular Na+ leads to water retention and cell swelling, potentially resulting in cell death.
Morphological Changes from Cell Stress
- Atrophy: Reduced intracellular content and function, same number of cells.
- Hypertrophy: Increased cell size with the same number of cells.
- Hyperplasia: Increased cell number without size change, often occurs alongside hypertrophy.
- Metaplasia: Tissue transformation to another cell type (adaptive and usually reversible).
- Dysplasia: Abnormal, non-adaptive, and pre-cancerous cell growth.
Hypertrophy vs. Hyperplasia
- Hypertrophy refers to cell size increase, while hyperplasia refers to cell number increase.
- Cardiac muscle can enlarge (hypertrophy) but does not undergo hyperplasia because they do not divide.
Visual Signs of Necrosis
- Coagulative necrosis involves cytoskeletal breakdown, lysosome rupture, and protein clumping.
- Cells display amorphous shapes, swelling, and distinct nuclear changes (pyknosis, karyorrhexis, or karyolysis).
Dysplasia Characteristics
- Dysplasia is characterized as non-adaptive and pre-neoplastic, denoting a risk for cancer development.
Cell Necrosis
- Necrosis represents irreversible cell death, triggering distinct morphological and biochemical changes within affected tissues.
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