Acids and Bases

Acids and Bases

• Acids have a pH less than 7, turn litmus paper red, and taste sour.
• Bases have a pH greater than 7, turn litmus paper blue, and taste bitter or soapy.
• Acids feel irritating or corrosive, while bases feel slippery.
• Common acids include fruit juices, soda, and coffee.
• Common bases include baking soda, ammonia, and soap.
• The pH of a neutral solution is 7.
• Values less than 7 on the pH scale represent an acidic solution, while more than 7 represents a base solution.

Brønsted-Lowry Concept

• Acids are H+ donors.
• Bases are H+ acceptors.

Alkalis

• Alkalis are bases that dissolve in water.
• They are soapy to touch, bitter, and corrosive.

Natural Sources of Acids

• Vinegar contains acetic acid.
• Oranges contain citric acid.
• Tamarind contains tartaric acid.
• Tomatoes contain oxalic acid.
• Sour milk (curd) contains lactic acid.
• Lemons contain citric acid.
• Ant stings contain methanoic acid.
• Nettle stings contain methanoic acid.

Litmus Solution

• Litmus solution is a purple dye extracted from lichen (Thallophyta division).
• It indicates the presence of acid or base.

Acid and Base Reactions

• Acid + Metal -> Salt + Hydrogen gas (pop sound)
• Metal carbonate/Metal hydrogen carbonate + Acid -> Salt + Carbon dioxide + Water
• Base + Acid -> Salt + Water
• Metal oxide + Acid -> Salt + Water

Important Indicators

• Olfactory indicators: vanilla, onion, clove
• Synthetic indicators: methyl orange, phenolphthalein

Additional pH Information

• The atmosphere of Venus contains thick white and yellowish clouds of sulfuric acid.
• The human body works within a pH range of 7.0 to 7.8.
• Rainwater with a pH less than 5.6 is called acid rain.
• Indigestion causes the stomach to produce too much acid; antacids neutralize the excess.
• Magnesium hydroxide (Milk of magnesia) is a mild base used as an antacid.
• Tooth decay starts at a mouth pH lower than 5.5.
• Tooth enamel is calcium hydroxyapatite, the body's hardest substance.
• Bee stings contain methanoic acid, causing pain and irritation.

Indicators & Colors

• Blue litmus turns red in acid, blue in alkaline solutions.
• Methyl orange is pink in acid, yellow in alkaline solutions.
• Methyl red is red in acid, yellow in alkaline solutions.
• Phenolphthalein is colorless in acid, pink in alkaline solutions.
• Red litmus is red in acid, blue in alkaline solutions.

Organic Acids

• Lactic acid: Sour milk
• Acetic acid (Ethanoic acid): Vinegar
• Formic acid (Methanoic acid): Ant venom
• Citric acid: Citrus fruits (lemon, lime, orange)
• Oxalic acid (Ethanedioic acid): Rhubarb, spinach
• Butyric acid (Butanoic acid): Milk, butter
• Lauric acid (Dodecanoic acid): Coconut oil
• Malic acid: Sour apples, sour grapes
• Tartaric acid: Grapes, tamarinds, pineapples
• Erucic acid: Rapeseed oil, mustard oil

Metal Reactions with Oxygen

• Metal + Oxygen -> Metal oxide (basic form)
• Most metal oxides are insoluble in water; some dissolve to form alkalis.
• Sodium oxide and potassium oxide dissolve in water to produce alkali.
• Nonmetal + Oxygen -> Nonmetal oxide (acid form)
• Some metal oxides (aluminum oxide, zinc oxide) show both acidic and basic behavior and are amphoteric oxides.

Metal Reactivity

• Potassium and sodium react vigorously and catch fire in open air, so they are kept in kerosene oil.
• Iron does not burn on heating, but iron filings burn vigorously when sprinkled in a flame.
• Copper does not burn, but hot metal is coated with black copper(II) oxide.
• Silver and gold do not react with oxygen even at high temperatures.

Anodizing

• Anodizing forms a thick oxide layer on aluminum.
• Aluminum develops a thin oxide layer in air to resist corrosion.
• Anodizing electrolyzes aluminum with dilute sulfuric acid, making a thicker protective oxide layer, which can be dyed.

Aqua Regia

• Aqua Regia (3 HNO₃ : 1 HCl) is used to dissolve gold.

Metal Reactions with Water

• Potassium and sodium react violently with cold water; the evolved hydrogen catches fire.
• Calcium reacts less violently and floats due to hydrogen bubbles.
• Magnesium reacts with hot water and also floats.
• Aluminum, iron, and zinc react with steam.
• Lead, copper, silver, and gold do not react with water at all.
• Hydrogen gas is not evolved when HNO₃ reacts with a metal because HNO₃ is a strong oxidizing agent.
• Magnesium and manganese react with very dilute HNO₃ to evolve H₂ gas.

Common Chemical Compounds

• Aqua Fortis/Spirit of Niter: Nitric Acid (HNO₃)
• Baking Soda: Sodium Bicarbonate or Sodium Hydrogen Carbonate (NaHCO₃)
• Blue Vitriol: Copper Sulphate (CuSO₄)
• Bleaching Powder: Calcium Oxychloride (Ca(OCl)₂)
• Bleach/ Antiformin/ Chloride of Soda: Sodium Hypochlorite (NaOCl)
• Borax: Sodium Tetraborate Decahydrate/ Sodium Borate (Na₂B₄O₇.10H₂O)
• Calomel: Mercurous Chloride (Hg₂Cl₂)
• Carborundum: Silicon Carbide (SiC)
• Carbolic Acid/ Phenol / Hydroxybenzene Phenic Acid: Phenol (C₆H₅OH)
• Caustic Potash: Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)
• Chile Saltpetre: Sodium Nitrate (NaNO₃)
• Caustic Soda: Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)
• Cream of Tartar: Potassium Hydrogen Tartrate/ Potassium Bitartrate (KHC₄H₄O₆)
• Chloroform: Trichloromethane (CHCl₃)
• CFC-12/Freon-12: Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl₂F₂)
• Dolomite: Calcium Magnesium Carbonate (CaMg(CO₃)₂)
• Dry Ice: Solid Carbon Dioxide (CO₂ (solid))
• Epsom Salt: Magnesium Sulphate Heptahydrate (MgSO₄.7H₂O)
• Galena: Lead (II) Sulphide (PbS)
• Glauber's Salt: Sodium Sulphate Decahydrate (Na₂SO₄·10H₂O)
• Glycerol: Propane-1,2,3-triol (C₃H₈O₃)
• Green Vitriol: Ferrous Sulphate Heptahydrate (FeSO₄.7H₂O)
• Gypsum: Calcium Sulphate Dihydrate (CaSO₄.2H₂O)
• Heavy Water: Deuterium Oxide (D₂O)
• Hematite: Iron (III) Oxide / Ferric Oxide (Fe₂O₃)
• Hypo Solution: Sodium Thiosulphate Pentahydrate (Na₂S₂O₃·5H₂O)
• Laughing Gas: Dinitrogen Monoxide / Nitrous Oxide (N₂O)
• Quick Lime / Burnt Lime: Calcium Oxide (CaO)
• Slaked Lime: Calcium Hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂)
• Limestone: Calcium Carbonate (CaCO₃)
• Litharge (Red) and Massicot (Yellow): Lead (II) Oxide / Lead Monoxide (PbO)
• Methyl Ethyl Ketone / Butanone: Butan-2-one (C₄H₈O)
• Marsh Gas: Methane (CH₄)
• Milk of Magnesia: Magnesium Hydroxide (Mg(OH)₂)
• Mohr's Salt: Ammonium Iron (II) Sulphate ((NH₄)₂Fe(SO₄)₂·6H₂O)
• Muriatic Acid: Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)
• Oil of Vitriol: Sulphuric Acid (H₂SO₄)
• Phosgene: Carbonyl Dichloride (COCl₂)
• Plaster of Paris: Calcium Sulphate Hemihydrate (CaSO₄·1/2H₂O)
• Potash Alum / Potassium Alum: Potassium Aluminum Sulphate Dodecahydrate (KAl(SO₄)₂·12H₂O)
• Propan-2-ol: Isopropyl Alcohol (C₃H₈O)
• Quartz: Silicon Dioxide (Silica) (SiO₂)
• Quicksilver: Mercury (Hg)
• Rochelle Salt: Potassium Sodium Tartrate (KNaC₄H₄O₆·4H₂O)
• Sal Ammoniac: Ammonium Chloride (NH₄Cl)
• Saltpetre: Potassium Nitrate (KNO₃)
• Table Salt / Common Salt: Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
• TNT: Trinitrotoluene (C₇H₅N₃O₆)
• Vermillion / Cinnabar: Mercuric Sulphide (HgS)
• Washing Soda: Sodium Carbonate Decahydrate (Na₂CO₃·10H₂O)

Important Chemicals and Their Uses

• Fluorescent lamps: Phosphor
• Rust stains remover: Oxalic acid
• Photographic films coating: Silver Bromide
• Gold dissolving: Aqua Regia
• Non-stick cookware coating: Teflon
• Matches: Phosphorus
• Water purification: Chlorine
• Antiseptic in mouth freshener, toothpaste: Hydrogen Peroxide
• Breath test for drunken driving: Potassium dichromate and Sulphuric acid
• Cloud seeding: Silver Iodide
• Fixing agent in photography and germicide: Sodium thiosulphate
• Explosive devices and fertilizers: Ammonium Nitrate
• Pharmaceutical capsule shells and gelling agent: Gelatin.
• Reduce pollution and import of petrol: Ethanol (sugarcane industry product being blended with petrol)
• Cleaning agent in dry cleaning: Tetrachloroethylene (perchloroethylene)
• Super absorbent in baby diapers: Sodium polyacrylate
• Embalming bodies and preservation of specimens: Formalin (aqueous solution of formaldehyde)
• Moisturizing creams and soaps: Glycerol
• Fog/smoke in theatrical stages: Dry ice and Glycol with water mix
• Anticoagulant in blood collection tubes: Sodium Citrate
• Rodenticide: Zinc Phosphide
• Sunscreen lotions, cigarette filters: Zinc Oxide

States of Matter

• Solid, Liquid and Gas are the three states of matter.
• Plasma: Super energetic and super excited particles in the form of ionized gases.
• Bose-Einstein Condensate (BEC): Formed by cooling a gas of extremely low density to super-low temperatures.

Melting Process

• When a solid melts, its temperature remains the same.
• The melting point of a solid indicates the strength of the force of attraction between its particles.

Latent Heat

• Latent heat of Vaporization: Particles in steam have more energy than water at the same temperature.
• Latent Heat of Fusion is the heat energy required to change 1 kg of solid into liquid at atmospheric pressure at its melting point.

Sublimation

• Solid carbon dioxide converts directly into gaseous state on decrease of pressure and is known as dry ice.

Evaporation Factors

• Different factors that affecting evaporation are Temperature, Surface area, Humidity and Wind speed.

Mixtures and Compounds

• Mixtures consist of elements or compounds physically mixed together without forming new compounds.
• Compounds are formed when elements react to form new substances with fixed compositions.

Types of Mixtures

• Homogeneous mixtures have uniform composition.
• Heterogeneous mixtures have non-uniform composition.

Separation of Mixtures

• Methods include magnet use, filtration, decantation, evaporation, centrifuging, chromatography, and distillation.

Facts about Metals

• Highest melting point: Tungsten
• Lowest melting point (solid at room temperature): Cesium
• Metals liquid at room temperature: Mercury, Gallium
• Highest thermal conductivity: Silver
• Highest electrical conductivity: Silver
• Most malleable and ductile: Gold
• Least reactive: Platinum
• Most abundant in Earth's crust: Aluminium
• Most widely used: Iron

Facts about Non-Metals

• Graphite (Carbon): Conducts electricity.
• Bromine (Br): Only non-metal that is a liquid at room temperature.
• Iodine (I): Metallic luster and slight conductivity.
• Diamond (Carbon): Hardest natural material.

Metal vs Nonmetal ore and properties

• Mentioned Metal ores include Bauxite, Beryl, Chromite, Cobaltite, Bornite etc..
• Properties and differences of metal vs nonmetals mentioned.

Alloys

• Brass, Bronze, German Silver, Rolled Gold, Gun Metal, Dutch metal etc mentioned with compositions.

Diseases Caused by Metal Poisoning

• Plumbism: Lead poisoning
• Itai-Itai: Cadmium poisoning
• Mad Hatter's Disease (Erethism): Mercury poisoning
• Minamata Disease: Mercury poisoning
• Byssinosis (Brown Lung disease): Cotton dust
• Mesothelioma and White Lung disease: Asbestos
• Black Lung disease: Coal dust
• Silicosis: Silica Dust
• Siderosis: Iron Dust

Chemical Properties of Metals

• Reaction with acid: Metal + Acid -> Salt + Hydrogen gas.
• Reaction with water: Highly reactive metals react with water e.g., Sodium metal.
• Reaction with base: Some metals react with a base i.e. Zinc.
• Reaction with oxygen: Metal + Oxygen -> Metallic oxide.

Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

• Non-metals do not react with acid.
• Reaction with water: Do not react with water.
• the reaction between a non-metal and a base is complex in nature.
• Reaction with oxygen: Non-metal + Oxygen -> acidic oxides.

Dalton's Atomic Theory

• All matter is composed of atoms.
• Atoms are indivisible and indestructible.
• Atoms of a given element are identical in mass and properties.
• Atoms combine in whole-number ratios to form compounds.

Laws

• Law of Constant Proportions: Compounds have the same elements in the same proportions by mass.
• Law of Conservation of Mass: Matter is neither created nor destroyed.

Names and Symbols of Ions (Table)

• Sodium (Na+), Potassium (K+), Silver (Ag+), Copper(I) (Cu+)
• Magnesium (Mg2+), Calcium (Ca2+), Zinc(Zn2+), Iron(II) (Fe2+), Copper(II) (Cu2+)
• Aluminium (A13+), Iron(III) (Fe3+)

Atomicity Table

• Inert gases (Helium, Argon, etc.) are monoatomic.
• Most common gases are diatomic (Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Chlorine).
• Phosphorus is tetra-atomic.

Mass and Radius

• atom is approximately 10^-10
• Haemoglobin is around 10^-8
• grain of sand is around 10^-4
• Ant is 10^-3
• and Apple is 10^-1

Atomic Structure

• Atomic Radius is measured in nanometres.
• Thomson's Model stated atoms as positively charged spheres with embedded electrons.
• Rutherford's Model shot alpha particles at gold foil to find the nucleus.

Drawbacks of Rutherford's Model

• Revolving electrons would lose energy and fall into the nucleus.
• Atoms should be unstable, but they are quite stable.

Bohr's Model of Atom

• Electrons revolve in discrete orbits without radiating energy.
• The number of electrons in the first orbit from K-shell to so on can be calculated with a formula.

Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones

• Isotopes: Same Atomic Number and Number of protons & electrons but Neutrons differ.
• Isobars: Same Atomic mass number and All neutrons, protons, and electrons differ.
• Isotones: Same number of Neutrons and Number of electrons & Proton differ.

Chemical Reaction type - COMBUSTION

• Reactants: Reactants with oxygen, Products: Carbon dioxide and Water.
• A single reactant breaks down to give simpler products.
• Decomposition- Calcium carbonate can be decomposed into simpler product CaO+ CO₂

Chemical Reaction type - DISPLACEMENT REACTION

• A reaction in which one element displaces another is called as Displacement reaction.
• Example mentioned: Fe(s) + CuSO4(aq) -> FeSO4aq) + Cu(s)

IMPORTANT NOTES

• Slaked lime (CaOH)2 is used for white washing. Reacts with CO2 give white shinny finish.
• Decomposition of vegetable matter is an exothermic reaction.
• Silver bromide is used in black and white photography.
• Hydrogen gas burns with a popping sound.
• The pH of milk of magnesia is 10, pure water and blood is 7.4, gastric juice is 1.2, sodium hydroxide solution is 14.
• The atmosphere of Venus is made up of sulphuric acid.
• Tooth decay starts when pH of mouth is lower than 5.5.
• Gandhiji used NaCl during Dandi March.

Distillation

• Used for separating two miscible liquids that boil without decomposition and have sufficient boiling point difference, e.g., acetone and water.

Fractional Distillation

• Used to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids when the difference in boiling points is less than 25K.

Separation Techniques

• Tincture of iodine is iodine in alcohol.
• Evaporation: extract colored component from blue or black ink.
• Centrifugation: separate dairy products, blood/urine tests, and water from wet clothes.

Dyes

• Coloured organic compounds used, color due to chromophores(multiple bonded groups).
• Auxochromes increases the intensity of color.
• Acid Dyes: sodium salt of azo dyes and can color silk, wool.
• Direct Dyes- water souluble dyes , can be directly aplied .
• Disperse Dyes- water insoluble.

Polymere

• Organic and inorganic compounds are practically insoluble. A combination of two or more allous combined on the basis of the amount ratio

Periodic classification

• Dobereiner triad: Classification on basis of similar properties.
• Newland octaves: arranged the element on the basis of asseses
• Mendeleevs periodic table:Chemical properties of element are a periodic function of their weight.

Important compounds and Salt

• NaOH aqueous solution called Brine
• CL2 is used for the treatmetn of swimming pool
• CA(OH)2 + CL2--> CaOCl+ H2O Bleanchin powder formation.
• NaHCO3 used in making cryspy Pkora and antacids

Important compounds

• Polymer are the formation or monomers linking together with the help of bonding
• Molecules that are used to form poymere like plastic, rubber etc or protien, DNA
• Type of polymer - Polythylene used to carry bag. Teffon- used in kitched, Baking , Nyon fabric.
• The type of polymeres are on the basis of their use

Trends

• Electronegativity, metaloc behavior depend upon the group or pertiod.
• The electronegavity depends upon the subshells.