عصر العباسيين (الرابع)

The Abbasid Era (Late or Fourth)

• The Seljuks emerged in the early 11th century (5th AH/11th CE).
• The Abbasid Caliphate fractured, allowing the Umayyads to consolidate in Al-Andalus, the Fatimids in Egypt and North Africa.
• Political and military chaos spread throughout the region.
• The Seljuks, originating from the Oghuz Turkic tribe, were located in vast deserts and grasslands from China to the Caspian Sea.
• In 375 AH, due to economic hardship and tribal warfare, they migrated to Transoxiana and Khurasan.
• They clashed with the Ghaznavids, losing initially, but later establishing a state in Khurasan in 431 AH/1040 CE under Sultan Toghrul Beg, who eventually was recognized as sultan by the Abbasid Caliph.
• The Seljuks expanded into Persia to counter the Buyids in Iraq.
• Sultan Toghrul Beg made Isfahan his capital in 442 AH.
• They controlled Khorasan, Persia, and were poised to enter Iraq, gaining recognition as the "Right-Hand of the Commander of the Faithful."

The Zanki Dynasty

• The weakening of the Seljuks led to the emergence of Atabegs.

• "Atabeg" (a Turkish term) translates to "father of the emir" or a guardian of the sultan's son.

• Atabegs arose in the Seljuk court, employing Turkic Mamluks, primarily from the Caucasus and Southern Russia.

• These Mamluks rose through the ranks to prominent positions.

• The death of Malik Shah caused internal conflicts, allowing the Atabegs to consolidate power.

• The most prominent Atabeg was 'Imad ad-Din Zengi, founder of the Atabegs of Mosul and Syria.

• His noteworthy victories against the Crusaders led to the establishment of the Zanki dynasty, specifically the Atabeg 'Imad ad-Din Zanki.

• Notable rulers - 'Imad ad-Din Zengi:

  • Began rule by organizing and attracting skilled warriors.
  • Sought independence from the Seljuks.
  • Captured Aleppo for its strategic importance.
  • Led successful campaigns against the Crusaders, including the conquest of the Crusader stronghold at 'Artah.
  • Assassinated while besieging the fortress of Jabir.

• 'Imad ad-Din Zengi's sons divided his empire:

  • Ghazi controlled Mosul.
  • Nur ad-Din Mahmud controlled Aleppo.

Nur ad-Din Mahmoud and the Zanki Dynasty

• Nur ad-Din continued the struggle against Crusaders.
• Expanded the realm in Syria.
• Established schools (Madrasas) for four major Islamic schools of thought and a library (Dar al-Hadith).
• Built a hospital (Bimaristan) for the poor.

The Ayyubid Dynasty (1171 - 1257 CE)

• The Ayyubids, descendants of the Kurdish Ikhshids tribe, played a significant role in the Islamic world.
• 'Imad ad-Din Zengi recruited numerous Kurds, including Salah ad-Din Ayyubi's father, Ayub ibn Shadi ibn Marwan.
• Salah ad-Din Ayyubi (founder of the Ayyubid state) served as a prominent military leader under Nur ad-Din.
• Salah ad-Din consolidated control over Egypt and eventually united Syria and Egypt.
• Notable achievements included victories against Crusaders, particularly the Battle of Hittin, and the conquest of Jerusalem.

The Ayyubid Rulers

• Salah ad-Din Ayyubi (1171-1192 CE):
  • Consolidated rule of Egypt and unified Syria and Egypt.
  • Defeated crusaders at battle of Hittin and retook Jerusalem.
  • Established schools, mosques, and other charitable institutions.
• Al-Adil Abu Bakr Muhammad (1200-1218 CE):
  • Commanded armies effectively and assisted Salah al-Din in decisions.
  • Conquests against Crusaders.
• Sultan Al-Kamil:
  • Son of Al-Adil Abu Bakr
• Sultan Muizz:
  • Son of Al-Kamil

The Mamluk Dynasty (1250-1517 CE)

• The Mamluks were enslaved soldiers primarily of Turkic and Circassian origin.
• They emerged as powerful forces in the Islamic world due to their military skills.
• The Mamluk Dynasty took over from the Ayyubids in Egypt and Syria.
• Mamluks:
  • Were purchased or captured.
  • Trained and integrated into the military ranks in the Abbasid empire.
  • Emerged as a powerful military force.
• Salah ad-Din and later Ayyubid rulers also incorporated Mamluks into their armies, contributing towards the rise of Mamluk power.
• The Mamluks emerged as rulers in Egypt after the fall of the Ayyubid Dynasty.

The Mamluk Sultanate(s)

• The state became one of the most powerful states in the region during their rule.

• The Mamluks' military prowess allowed them to decisively defeat the Mongols.

• Notable Battles:

  • Battle of Ain Jalut: The decisive victory against the Mongols in 1260.
  • This victory marked a turning point in history and secured the Mamluks' position as a major force in the region.

• The Mamluk Dynasty's notable rulers includes:

  • Sultan Baibars
    • Fought against Crusaders and also the Mongols.
  • Sultan Baybars(Baibars)
    • Continued the fight against the Crusaders.
    • Established a postal service.
    • Supported education.

• The Mamluk period resulted in significant architectural, artistic, and intellectual achievements.

  • Notable architectural and artistic contributions by Mamluk sultans.

The Ottoman Empire (1516-1918 CE)

• The Ottomans were a Turkish dynasty that grew to encompass vast territories in the Middle East, North Africa, and Southeastern Europe.

• The Ottomans consolidated their control over parts of the Islamic world through military campaigns and diplomacy.

• Key Sultans:

  • Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror (1444-1481):
    • Conquered Constantinople (Istanbul).
    • Established a new capital.
  • Sultan Selim I (1512-1520):
    • Defeated the Mamluks, expanding Ottoman control over Syria and Egypt.
    • Controlled holy sites in the Arabian Peninsula (Mecca and Medina).

• The Ottoman empire's influence extended into diverse geographical areas.

• The period saw various cultural and intellectual developments within the empire.

• The Ottomans consolidated their authority and expanded their control through military campaigns and diplomatic efforts across multiple regions.

The Umayyad Dynasty in al-Andalus

• Early rule (95-138 AH/714 - 756 CE):

  • Initially under governors.

• Period of unified Umayyad rule (138-399 AH/756 - 1008 CE):

  • Key figures include Abd al-Rahman I, Abd al-Rahman II, al-Hakam II, and others.
  • Periods of significant political turmoil and internal conflict.
  • Early rulers focused on consolidating control after the initial conquests.
  • Building of infrastructure, including the rebuilding of cities and the promotion of trade.

• The Kingdom of Granada period (beginning in 634/1238 CE) saw further division, with the eventual fall of that realm to Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile who in 1492 CE completed the reconquest of al-Andalus.