8th Grade Geography: Maps and Diagrams

• Notes on the Geography lessons from class 8

Maps and Diagrams.

• Representations of Earth on a flat surface using scale for physical features, agricultural distribution, or political divisions.
• Essential for location knowledge in studying places around the world that highlights economic and physical significance.
• Atlas maps are general maps for countries/ continents with less detail.
• Atlas maps provide information about rainfall, temperature, forests, minerals, and continental conditions.
• Topographic maps focus on smaller areas with details like rivers, forests, and landmarks.
• Cadastral maps are large-scale and provide detailed information about farms, houses, blocks, streets, parks and markets.
• Distribution maps help compare area populations, cattle numbers, mineral reserves, and crop divisions.
• Distribution maps come in two types as qualitative and quantitative.
• Dot distribution maps use dots for population or agricultural production in provinces or districts.
• Dots in maps should follow data scales, avoid overcrowding, consult physical maps and are suited for displaying absolute totals.
• Shading is used to show population/production with colors/shades, but may seem uniformly spread and may ignore non-productive areas.
• Distribution maps use census data and can't account for mobile populations and color differences limit density differentiation.
• Distribution maps are based on data and should be updated, can be averaged to display variations in production.
• Diagrams are conceptual sketches for transferring geographic information.
• Line graphs are a type of statistical diagram used with the help of a line on the graph.
• Line graphs feature a variable quantity and a constant and are based on lines intersecting at 90 degrees.
• Horizontal axis is for constant variables (days, months) and is measurable (rainfall, temperature, air pressure) on the vertical axis.
• Values are marked in dots for constant variables, joined to form the line graph, these cannot show total quantities.
• Line graphs can compare variables, show increases and decreases in production, and illustrate weather conditions or exports/imports.
• It is easy to understand the fluctuations as well as the production of items from the line graph
• Line graphs show average quantities but do not show percentages and cannot represent rainfall with a line graph.
• Bar graphs show quantities with equal width bars with the height varying based with comparisons.
• The total production quantity of any item can be shown using the bar graph
• Bar graphs show quantities and can be shaded
• Bar graphs require multiple/compound bars for more than one quantity or can only show the value of one item.
• Pie graphs show data in colored circle forms, dividing the circle (360°) into sectors using formulas.
• Pie graphs display percentage values and totals.
• Pie graphs take less space than line/bar graphs and makes comparisons.
• Pie graphs illustrate country areas and show power resource data more effectively than other graphs.
• Pie graphs are suitable for population/area data, but not weather data.
• Percentages may be difficult and time consuming.

Agents of Landforms Change

• Landforms are varied due to internal and external forces.
• Mountains, plateaus and plains are major landforms.
• External forces create diverse landforms from erosion and deposition in various environments.
• River action confined to rainfall areas and mountains creates rivers.
• Breaking rocks is erosion, transporting is transportation, and very low speed is deposition
• River's erosional landforms are V-Shaped Valley with deep versions are gorges and water falls from water cutting the hard rocks
• River's Depositional landforms are the Flood Plain with sediments, Natural Levees with sand and silt and Delta with the material divided into branches and enters into sea
• Land Glacier actions are confined to high mountains and polar regions
• Glaciers are snow masses that move downslope, causing erosion.
• Valley/alpine glaciers at high altitudes flow faster due to slope.
• Initial erosion is followed by deposition when melting.
• Cirque ice accumulation creates a bowl shaped.
• Tarn the valley glaciers outside creates natural lakes, including Saif-ul-Muluk
• Glacier valleys widen into U-shapes and the example area is Kaghan, Naran and Hunza
• Small streams join major major rivers with hanging valleys
• The Fjords glaciers go down to the coasts, the valleys descend into the ocean and area common in Denmark
• Glaciers create moraines with huge piles
• Lateral moraines has wide glaciers that cut laterally, depositing material as ridges.
• The Medial moraines two glaciers that join, the ridges merge to form a medial moraine.
• The End Moraine material arc at the terminus of the glacier
• Continental glaciers are enormous.
• Continental glaciers are ice sheets in polar zones such as Greenland/Antarctica, that are thousands of feet deep and have slow flow.
• The depositional landforms are the Marginal Lakes.
• Delta Kames natural lakes by melt water that deposit in delta forms within such lakes.
• Eskers melt tunnels that form in glaciers where streams drop materials as winding piles inside.
• Out-Wash Plains in from after melt water drops material over a vast land area that form plains
• Drumlins are shaped hills deposited by glaciers that also often appear as inverted spoons or eggs.
• Terminal Moraine that is shaped that is made at the end of glacier
• Wind creates windforms in low rainfall areas and sparse vegetation
• Erosional windforms process the loose sediments and transform rocks.
• Deflation is the process of carrying sediments, with abrasion as a tool.
• In Zeugen, wind erodes soft rock layers, leaving hard rock slabs.
• Erosion transforms hard rocks into mushroom shapes.
• Deflation Basin and Lakes form from carries sediments, the depressions becomes lakes.
• Yardang are rocks with erosion of hard/soft rocks, creating the rocks uneven.
• Inselberg's are hard rocks columns remain behind
• Depositional Windforms action piles up sand into dunes with different shapes
• Longitudinal dunes are long formations parallel to wind that reach several kilometers
• Transverse dunes form at 90 degrees as wave like dunes
• The sharper tips of Crescent/barchan dunes mark wind paths.
• Star Shaped Dunes have shifting winds form dunes in star shapes to over 100 meters.
• Coastal dunes occur when winds from the coast become the sea coastal dunes.
• Sea waves erode inland but forms the the coastal side on a large scale
• Wave attacks form caves/cavities
• The head-land and bay are formed when seawater extends farther into the land with hard rocks remains ahead.
• Sea Arches and Stacks' heads are pounded from the sides, leaving column shapes.
• Sea cliffs become slopes over time due to wave action and depends on nature.
• Deposition of sand on coasts builds smooth plains.
• Spit Bars form when sand deposits happen around a bay ridge
• Tombolo when a split bar goes into open water and connects to island
• Bay Mouth and Cuspate Bar spit bars that stretch across to cut the bay with two split bars, and a cuspate bar where two direction bars meets.

Oceans and Seas

• Ocean of water body with the sea has an adjacent smaller parts
• Five oceans are identified
• Pacific Ocean has 168 Million square Kilometers in area and an average depth of 4000 meters composed of deep trenches
• Panama Canal also sits here and links the Atlantic
• Atlantic ocean as the second largest has 85 million kilometers square and 3900 meters deep. A mid ocean eruption and seismic waves reside here
• Indian ocean is 70 million kilometres square and streches 3900 meters. Midocean ridge divides it and 7400 trenches reside here and it also connects the sea
• Antarctic Ocean that has 22 million kilomters squared is 4000 metres deep and is very cold/ iceburgs
• Arctic Ocean and 15 million km. It's shallow depth and salinity
• Sea is defined as an adjacent part of the continental ocean region
• Gulf is narrow but large part of the coast
• Bay is Vast but large and extends inland
• Bight is an extended bay
• Strait narrow piece that two waters connect
• Peninsula is cut off for 3 sides
• Island fully surrounded
• Isthmus strip of land with two coasts
• Ocean floor not uniform
• Continental shelf part of water besides land
• Continental slope is a slope that goes deep
• Submarine trenches/ canayons part of ocean were the slope merges and trenches and canyons are found
• Oceanic ridges central portiion of plain with 6000 metres and volcanoes form a mid ocean ridge
• Water movement comes in waves currents and tides which cause the movement
• Waves generate because of factors which transfers energy into water
• Crest is top of wave and height is the measured distance. The shallow part when the height increases is a breaker and is a sharp point
• Winds generate mostly waves
• Currents a river in water and water moving permeanetly
• Equator winds has warming waters and increase temperature with Gulf Stream/ Atlantic being an example and they move polar toward sea
• Currents follow clock in north and same in south
• Tides are rising and falling tides and gravitation of moon also play huge rule
• Gravity also rises and can be Newton's thought and this plays role
• Tides happen every 12 hours
• Balance of gravity with centrifuge
• Spring tides every revolution on 14 day the moon the sun and planet are in plane and is highest time
• Neap happens when are are perpendicular
• Waves has earthquakes/ cyclone, force water in ocean which leads to movement

Natural Disasters

• Natural disasters cause destruction of life and property, and that includes things like earthquakes, floods, and wildfires.
• Molten rock that forms is Magma, where the process of molten rock is formed is volcanism. Lava which is the magma of surface destroys its way in.
• Ash from lava pollutes.
• Pakistan even in active areas, is fortunate to have active boundaries, where there is some amount of activity is still traced
• Monitoring to mitigate and help vulenrable volcanos and have adopted emergency to warn.
• A landslide of soil moving is caused "Downslope" and damages communication line. Gilgit for example had blockade caused by landslides.
• Pakistan's north areas affected by landslides, construction leads slopes become unstable. Tree cutting plays cause for it.
• Stabilization of land to recude effects of the soil and water reduces table with trees.
• Expansion of deserts into farm land with climates changing and industries involved has human induced desertification. The agricultural production because of of is going down in those sources where most migrate.
• Rainfall as a major factor is a small centimeters where Pakistan is in hot climates. Soil erosion has also created conditions where unsafe farming causes this which has caused decrease in biodiversity.
• Tree plantation helps keeping the climates moderate and helps spread. Use of the organic fertilizer is done and and methods to help people. Use modern irrigation with no tree cutting.
• A flood water of a river that overflows out causes damage. It is considered natural disaster and social/environment degration. Infrastructure as well can can dame but water leads to life lost with diseases.
• Mountain areas has heavy snow and water flowing out in the northern mountain. These cause flooding
• Safety measures has to be flooding of flood risks with electricity disconnected. Safety people has to give evac plan
• Cyclone and swirling winds causes low pressure and produce rain thunder. 200 kilomters are power where it cuts. Arabian see is of of Pakistan. Poor infrascture with and and power, are the reasons. Construction for resistant of hurricanes forecast those areas. Evac and Volunteers established by these
• Sudden Earth shaking is the Earthquake. Its cannot be redcited and this is what the causes in destroying settlements Pakistan lies in areas where tech tectonic collide that cause it. The earth's three actions from damages and they take safety precautions. Construction can reduce damage during the earth

Major Environmental Problems

• Environmental pollution happens when any unwanted substance if harmful.
• Domestic waste, combustion, and traffic, are sources of pollutants.
• Principal Pollution are soil, air, water, and noise pollution.
• Air quality is affected by gases, dust, radiation with volcanism.
• Air pollution is a source of issues, is the rising of harmful problems that also is the major causes
• Water pollution also comes from activities from fertilizer, sewage, floods etc.
• Water pollution also negative impacts human and water. Water borne affect the plant.

Natural Regions

• A natural entity is region. Physical culture, homogeneity, is the geographical part

• Earths climate is not uniformity due. Lifestyles from diffreent areas in mountainous, forest areas are due

• Temperature determines it with climate control

• Torrid region has cancer, north , capricorn areas which is 23.5 with Asia , america etc. temp is heavy and eastside rains heavy

• Temperate has cancer carpicorn and arcitc which. 66.5 with places around india etc. temp and rains both seasonal, west side rains heavy

• • Frigiic and atarctic. 90. Too cold and heavy snow

• Rainforest are between 5 lattitudes on areas such as indonesia

• Monson region are 5 to 25. places around aisa like pakistan, on 25th sun hits cancer while the copicorn is oblique. heavy winds produce rain

• Med. 30 to 40 , around world with spain, the greek are which have summer that temp remains 10- 20 degrees, north sea with max rainfall during coats while dry

• Step- 35-55 latitude from desrts. mali has annual with between 100- 300MM of grazing Tundra 60- 75 where 8months is cold. rainfall 205. with less mm of rain Dserrt: 1r t 25 north and south. dry 32 , water helps here

Climate of Pakistan

• Weather conditions that affect the year of area by temp or rain
• Winters in pakistan statys in December and febrauary which is less the 18. rain is low.
• Spring season march to May. Trees blossom but north has no rain
• Summer. is hot. Low presure attracts winds . July. rain is rain season due to north mountains. decrease when going north south west. -Autumm once rain increases but not. Climate is different, and aziz ahmed divides them .
• Sub hot , cold. raim , hilama , snow falls.
• Sub plant with hot water plateaus. Nouski chaagi,
• sub and baloch but rain in summer.
• Torpid and coastal, keeps temp moderate. between 21 -3.

Neighbouring Regions of Pakistan

• Establishing good bilateral relations is foregin relation
• South population wise 25 percent worlld country area , afagn, india india and banga
• Colonalisim efffect most and natural affect per capiata
• Efforts appear in capitiata
• Region densely populated but different socio economic cause it to to be burden
• positive changing
• primiitvie
• SAARC assosiation
• middle blessed with gas in outh west asia and baheain iran syria kuwait
• most midle asia and has depended on petroleum. shortage labour
• valley river that lack to . industrie late
• muslim, so good relation Econcomnic organ
• central. in north west . the asia and kirgtaz karokarm with socail hx

Problems of Underdevelopment

• Economy depend country where it has high and low capitiata
• under low due to mis The per capital income cause to stay in poverty
• outmodeed socal
• consitstency poiliced
• low skilled