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Tour of the Solar System

• The solar system is mostly empty space
• Earth is 150M km from the Sun, equivalent to 1 AU
• Jupiter is 5.5 AU from the Sun
• Neptune is 30 AU from the Sun
• The Oort Cloud extends to approximately 50,000 AU from the Sun
• A light year is 9.46 trillion km
• The next closest star, Alpha Proxima, is 4.3 light years away
• 1 AU, or Astronomical Unit, is 149.6M kilometers (93M miles)

Sun Facts

• Its diameter is over 1M km (Earth's is ~13,000 km)
• If the Sun were the size of a basketball, Earth would be 150 basketballs away
• The Sun is a medium sized, middle-aged star
• The Sun's diameter is 1.39M km
• Over 100 Earths could fit along the Sun's equator
• Its surface temperature is 5770 K
• Its core temperature is over 15M K
• Stars consist of hydrogen and helium gas held together by gravity
• Pressure inside stars converts hydrogen to helium
• Most of the visible universe is composed of hydrogen and helium
• Cecelia Payne determined that the sun is mostly hydrogen in 1925 by examining absorption lines in the solar spectrum
• Henry Russel discouraged Payne from publishing her conclusions, but 4 years later came to the same conclusion using a different method
• Russel published his results, and his findings were confirmed and accepted by the scientific community
• Russel acknowledged Payne's contributions, but she did not receive the credit she deserved for many years

Energy Production

• E = MC^2
• Four smashed hydrogen atoms can make one helium atom
• A small amount of mass can be converted into a large amount of energy
• Stars take 4 hydrogen atoms and create a helium atom, converting mass into energy, radiating into space
• Scientists are trying to replicate this process on Earth for unlimited, clean energy
• Chemical reactions release 1.2x10^8 J/kg when burning hydrogen
• Nuclear fusion releases 6x10^14 J/kg when fusing hydrogen into helium
• Stars are powered by nuclear fusion
• Pressure and temperature in the core fuses hydrogen atoms to form helium
• Every second, the sun burns ~600M tons of hydrogen, converting it into helium and energy
• Every 70,000 years, the sun consumes a mass of hydrogen equal to Earth's mass
• The "missing" mass is converted into energy, as per E = MC^2

Mercury

• The radius of Mercury measures 2440 km
• Its mass is 6% of Earth's mass
• Mercury is 57.9 million km (.39 AU) from the Sun
• The density is 5.43 g/cm^3
• The surface is heavily cratered, generated by high-velocity impacts
• Density, or mass/volume, provides clues to composition
• Water has a density of 1g/cm^3
• Typical rocks have densities of ~2.5-3.5g/cm^3
• Mercury's high density indicates that it is not just rocky material
• Air has a density of 1.225 kg/m^3
• Liquid water has a density of 1000 kg/m^3
• Rocky material has a density range of ~2500-3300 kg/m^3
• Solid iron (at 1 atm. pressure) has a density of 7874 kg/m^3
• Measuring the density of an object in the solar system allows an educated guess about its composition

Venus

• Venus is similar to Earth in size (0.815 Earth mass), composition, and distance to the Sun (0.72 AU)
• Venus is often called Earth's twin
• Venus's clouds are made of sulfuric acid, and its atmosphere is crushing, made of CO2 obscuring the surface
• The temperature is hot enough to melt lead
• The dense atmosphere produces run-away greenhouse effect and obscures the surface from view
• Carbon dioxide prevents infrared light from escaping, absorbs the radiation
• Increasing carbon dioxide warms the planet by keeping heat from escaping
• Magellan spacecraft revealed Venus' complex surface using radar, which can penetrate the atmosphere
• It has a diverse landscape with jagged mountains, abundant volcanic features, but very few craters

Earth

• Only Earth has abundant liquid water at its surface
• Surface temperatures range from -73 up to 48C, but are mostly in the range where liquid water can exist

The Moon

• The radius of the Moon measure 1738 km
• The mass of the moon is ~1% of Earth's mass
• The density is lower than Earth, at 3.3 g/cm^3 vs 5.4 g/cm^3

Mars

• The mass of Mars is ~11% of Earth's mass
• Mars is 1.5 AU (= ~50% as much solar energy) from the sun
• The planet displays extensive past volcanism, some fairly recent
• Evidence supports the existence of past water
• Mars was warm and wet for the first billion years, but today is cold and dry
• Venus and Mars exemplify two extremes of the greenhouse effect
• Earth is kept in balance for now

Asteroid Belt

• The Asteroid Belt lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter
• It consists of millions of bodies ranging from less than a km in size to nearly 1000 km
• Most meteorites come from the asteroid belt
• 4 Vesta is the second-largest asteroid in the belt, with a diameter of 525 km
• It is believed to be the source of a special class of achondrite meteorites called Eucrites
• Images were taken by the Dawn spacecraft while in orbit around Vesta in 2011
• On October 20, 2020, Osiris Rex successfully “tagged” the asteroid Bennu, collecting ~122 g of fine material from the asteroid's surface
• This material was returned to Earth for study on September 24, 2024

Jupiter

• The mass of Jupiter is 318x the mass of Earth
• It is larger than all other planets combined
• Jupiter is a low density (1.33 g/cm^3) gas giant
• It is not a failed star
• Jupiter is big, but the minimum mass for nuclear fusion is ~75x that of Jupiter
• Jupiter has a dense atmosphere composed mostly of hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane and other gases
• Jupiter rotates very rapidly, with a "day" lasting 9.9 hrs
• Rapid rotation combined with convection driven by heat from the interior helps produce the stark atmospheric banding, severe and long-lived storms (Great Red Spot) and unimaginable winds
• At the equator, winds can reach velocities of 150 m/s (540 km/hr)
• Jupiter has 95 known satellites
• The 4 largest moons, Callisto, Ganymede, Europa, and Io, are called the “Galilean satellites”
• Callisto has a radius larger than our moon (2403 km vs 1738 km), though it's much less massive because of its low density (1.85 g/cm^3), reflecting its composition of a mixture of rock and ice
• Callisto's surface is heavily cratered, indicating that it has been inactive for a long time
• Ganymede is the largest Galilean satellite with a radius of 2634 km
• Ganymede is similar in composition to Callisto
• While some parts of Ganymede's surface are heavily cratered, others are less so
• There are massive fractures and grooves cutting across the planet, suggesting greater past activity than Callisto
• Europa is denser than Ganymede and Callisto (2.99 g/cm^3), composed primarily of rock rather than ice
• It has an icy surface that is only lightly cratered and which is covered with a very complex network of cracks, ridges, and grooves
• Young (sparsely cratered), complex terrains suggest Europa's surface has been reworked by cryovolcanism
• Gravitational interaction with Jupiter and other Galilean satellites results in tidal heating, which warms Europa's interior
• Europa likely hides an ocean of liquid water several hundred km thick
• On Earth, deep-sea hydrothermal vents team with life and may have been home to the earliest life forms
• It is wondered whether similar vents beneath Europa's icy crust could provide a habitat for life
• Io is a world where tidal heating has gone mad
• Io is the most volcanically active body in the solar system
• Io's high density (3.53 g/cm^3) indicates a rocky composition
• With no impact craters, Io's surface is constantly reworked by volcanism

Saturn

• The mass of Saturn is 95x the mass of Earth
• It has a very low density (0.69 g/cm^3) and would float in water
• Saturn has a massive atmosphere of H, He, and methane (similar to Jupiter)
• It is most famous for its rings
• Saturn's rings are composed of countless small icy particles, ranging in size from ~1 meter to <1 micrometer
• The rings may be the result of a catastrophic breakup of a satellite due to impact
• Gaps or grooves in the rings are the result of gravitational interactions with “shepard” satellites
• Saturn has a large array of major and minor satellites
• Most are icy worlds composed of water, CO2, and methane ice
• Titan is the largest and most intriguing moon of Saturn
• It is one of the largest moons in our solar system
• Titan has a thick, hazy nitrogen atmosphere, difficult to see surface features (also contains methane and hydrocarbons)
• On Jan 15, 2005, the Huygens probe descended through the Titan atmosphere and landed on its surface
• It revealed a world of methane rain and hydrocarbon rivers and lakes- a frigid prebiotic organic soup similar to the ingredients that were probably instrumental in the origin of life on Earth
• Enceladus has grooved terrain
• Geysers of liquid water jet from its surface which turn to ice particles
• Liquid water exist beneath the surface

Uranus

• Uranus and Neptune are Ice Giants
• They are mostly made of ices and ~15% hydrogen
• Uranus has a blue color which comes from methane in its atmosphere
• The mass of Uranus is 13x Earth's mass
• It has a uniform structure throughout with no rocky core
• There are 11 rings, and 27 satellites
• Uranus is -212C at the surface
• It has an 18 hr rotation, and 84 year orbit
• Uranus spins on an axis inclined almost 90 degrees

Neptune

• Neptune may have a small rocky core of unknown composition
• It has 4 rings of unknown composition as well as 13 moons
• Neptune has an 18 hr rotation and a 165 year orbit
• Triton is a moon of Neptune with ice volcanoes and geysers
• It has a thin atmosphere of nitrogen and methane as well as ridges and valleys, and melting surfaces
• Triton was formed independently and was captured by Neptune's gravity
• It orbits Neptune in the wrong direction (clockwise)
• It has a counterclockwise - prograde motion and a clockwise- retrograde motion

Pluto

• Before 2015, little was known about Pluto
• The New Horizons spacecraft took better photos
• It has a diameter of 1413 miles (2274 km)
• About ½ size of Earth's moon but much lower mass
• Pluto's orbit takes 248 years and is highly elliptical
• Light from Sun takes 5.5 hrs to reach it
• It has of a surface of water and methane ice, and frozen nitrogen
• Pluto belongs to a large and growing class of “dwarf planets” located beyond the orbit of Neptune
• Pluto lost its planet status in 2006
• Largest known trans-Neptunian objects include Eris (Dysnomia), Pluto (Charon), 2005 FY9, 2003 EL61, Sedna, Orcus, Quaoar, Varuna

Origin of the Solar System

• Planetary science, which includes the sizes, orbits, compositions, and physical properties of the planets in our own solar system can provide clues to their origin
• Meteorites provide samples of the oldest objects in the solar system, dating to the time the planets formed
• You can learn stars form by looking at ongoing star formation elsewhere in our galaxy

Data to Explain

• Planets are isolated with circular orbits in the same plane
• Planets (and most moons) travel along orbits in the same direction which is the same direction as Sun rotates (counter-clockwise viewed from above)
• Most (not all) planets rotate in the same direction
• The degree of tilt is: Mercury 0°, Venus 177°, Earth 23°, Mars 25°, Jupiter 3°, Saturn 27°, Uranus 98°, Neptune 28°
• The Solar System is highly differentiated in terms of distance to the sun
• Terrestrial Planets are rocky, dense with density ~4-5.5 g/cm^3
• Jovian Planets are light, gassy, H, He, density 0.7-2 g/cm^3
• Observations from astronomy reveal that stars are formed primarily from giant “Molecular Gas Clouds”, which are cold, dense clouds of dust and gas concentrated in the spiral arms of our Galaxy

Solar System Formation

• The basic stages for solar system formation are:
  • Collapse of giant gas/dust cloud
  • Formation of rotating disk
  • Condensation of solids and formation of planetesimals
  • Accretion of planetesimals to form “embryos”
  • Runaway growth

Nebular Hypothesis Step 1

• Starts with a large cloud of ~99% gas (mostly H2 and He) and dust
• Forces acting to collapse the cloud include gravity
• Forces acting to prevent collapse include gas pressure, turbulence, and magnetic fields
• The process of star formation begins if gravity wins

Nebular Hypothesis Step 2

• Diffuse spherical rotating nebula
• Flat rapidly rotating disk with a proto-sun
• Gas and dust collide to form planetesimals
• Terrestrial planets form from planetesimals

Angular Momentum

• Clouds spin more rapidly as it collapses because of conservation of angular momentum
• As it collapses and spins faster, it flattens into a disk with a protostar in the center
• Many young stars are surrounded by disks of dust and gas, just as our sun was 4.5 billion years ago
• This disk forms due to the accelerated spinning of the gas/dust cloud that results from contraction
• The proto-planetary disk was initially HOT (max temps of 2000 K), especially close to the growing sun
• Refractory phases called CAIs, Calcium-aluminum inclusions, formed by condensing from hot gas
• Round Chondrules are formed by flash heating/melting of dust accumulations, possibly due to shock waves in the disk
• The proto-planetary disk was heated by the accretion of material falling onto the disk which released gravitational energy, by friction, and by the growing proto-sun
• Numerical models constrained from both astronomical observations and findings from meteorites show that peak temperatures in the inner solar system would have been hot enough to evaporate all solids
• Condensation is the process by which solid grains formed as the initially hot solar nebula began to cool, like snowflakes forming in a cloud
• Different compounds condense at different temperatures
  • Silicates, rock-forming minerals, and metals condense at high temperatures
  • Ices, water, CO2, CH4, condensed in the colder outer portions of the disk, but not inward of the "snow line"
• Dust bunnies are small clumps of dust held together by static electricity and felt-like entanglement
• Chrondrite meteorites are like “cosmic sediments," they are collections of the first solid phases to condense from the solar nebula and so provide information on this first stage of planet formation
• For planetesimals smaller than a few kilometers in diameter, “entanglement” and electrostatic forces hold things together
• For larger objects, gravity becomes important

Nebular Hypothesis Step 3

• Diffuse spherical rotating nebula
• Flat rapidly rotating disk with a proto-sun
• Gas and dust collide to form planetesimals
• Terrestrial planets form from planetesimals

Nebular Hypothesis Step 4

• Diffuse spherical rotating nebula
• Flat rapidly rotating disk with a proto-sun
• Gas and dust collide to form planetesimals
• Terrestrial planets form from planetesimals
• Gravitational interactions between a large number of initial planetesimals lead to collisions and growth of planetesimals

Growth

• The largest objects grow fastest and clear their orbits by “cannibalizing” other planetesimals in their region of space
• Runaway growth leads to the formation of a small number of large objects from the initial large population of planetesimals
• Solar system formed 4.56 billion years ago

Evidence for Formation

• Lunar samples: up to ~4.5 Ga (Ga = giga anna = billion years)
• Meteorites 4.56 Ga
• Earth oldest rocks 3.9 (or 4.4 Ga)
• Evidence for the initial presence of now-extinct short-lived radioactive isotopes in the early solar system suggest the whole process from start to finish took <50 million years for the terrestrial planets
• Radioactive dating of meteorites shows they are ~4.55 billion years old
• Earth and the moon formed at the same time as the other planets
• Whole process took ~50 million years
• In 1956, Clair Patterson measured lead isotopes in meteorites and sediments from Earth - both are the same age, roughly 4.55 billion years
• He had to eliminate contamination from environmental lead, mostly from leaded gasoline
• His work revealed widespread lead pollution from leaded gasoline and helped push the phase-out of leaded gas beginning in 1975
• Since this phase-out, lead levels in blood have decreased by more than 80%
• Direct correlation in blood lead levels and crime rates

Outer Planets

• The “inner” planets are much denser than the “outer” planets
• Outer Planets are planets with rocky cores several Earth masses in size and dense atmospheres of H2 and He similar to the sun, but enriched in heavier gases relative to solar composition
• Core accretion occurs as a result of gravitational instability
• The amount of solids available in a region of the protoplanetary disk influences the size of planets that form
• In the inner solar system, less solids are available because components like H2O and CO2 remain a gas
• In the core accretion model, solid phases clump together to produce planetesimals, planetary embryos
• If these get large enough, they can gravitationally attract and hold on to nebula gas, creating gas giants
• In the gas-collapse model, gravitational instability in the disk creates a self-gravitating “clump” of gas
• Dust grains may form and fall to the center, but they aren't necessary to start the process
• Outer planets probably started forming about the same time as the inner planets, as solids were condensing and accumulating in the proto-planetary disk
• Models suggest formation of the outer planets should have taken much longer (~10° years vs. <5x107 years)
• This appears to conflict with evidence (the asteroid belt) that Jupiter had formed before formation of the inner planets was complete
• There are small, rocky worlds close to the sun, gas giants farther out, and icy worlds farther still

Methods to Determine the Presence of an Exoplanet

• Radial Velocity: The presence of a planet is detected planet by observing the wobble it produces, even when the planet is too faint to see
• Other methods in looking for changes in star luminosity as a planet passes across its surface
• Gravitational pull from orbiting planets causes a star to wobble, the larger the planet causes a greater pull which provides clues to the existence of exoplanets

Super Jupiters

• Over 4000 extrasolar planets have been identified, and we even know of one star with at least 8 planets
• Lots of super-Jupiters have been found very close to their companion star
• This defies that planets could not have formed where they are due to location being too hot and having too little material

Orbit Migration

• Orbit migration appears to be important in planetary formation, and may have also been important for our own Solar System
• A planet embedded in a gas cloud is like a fish swimming through molasses
• The gas slows the planet down, causing it to spiral closer to the Sun
• Once the gas clears locally, other gravitational interactions can cause the planets to change course

Grand Tack

• The “Grand Tack” model is a wind that occurs when planet travel without tacking can be controlled by external forces
• For planets forming in a gas disk, that usually means a one-way trip towards the sun
• Initially gases within a the disk caused Jupiter and staurnto migrate inward. Later after a clearing of of the gas, the direction of movement was altered, which pushed Uranus and Neptune outward

Difficulties with Forming Planets

• Uranus and Neptune are too big because there probably wasn't enough stuff out at 19 AU (Uranus) and 30 AU (Neptune) to form giant planets
• There are too many comets, Kuiper belt objects, and other icy worlds at the far edges of our solar system
• Jupiter must have formed quickly to disrupt the asteroid belt and slow the growth of Mars, and planets should form more slowly in the outer solar system
• Lots of comets and Kuiper belt objects have highly elliptical, highly inclined orbits which occurs because
  1. Uranus and Neptune originally formed much closer to the sun where Jupiter and Saturn are now, and then migrated outward
  2. This migration caused scattering of icy planetesimals in the outer solar system, producing the Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud.
  3. Jupiter formed closer to the sun than where it is now, forming more quickly in time to disrupt the region now occupied by the asteroid belt
  4. The elliptical, inclined orbits of comets and Kuiper Belt objects is the result of gravitational "scattering" by Neptune as it migrated outward
• Neptune and Uranus orbits had a large influence to other smaller bodies in the solar system
  • Scattering orbits of planetesimals in the outer solar system during Neptune and Uranus migration helped form comets and Kuiper Belt objects
• Six of the eight planets have satellites or moons

Models in which moons form

1. Capture passing objects which explains why some planets retain moons like Neptune's - Triton
2. Accretion of of material that has been ejected due to impact, similar ot how Earth's mood was formed
3. Co-accretion comes from disks surrounding growing proto which occurs is similar to the formation of of the solar systems and the moon Galena

Moon Formation

• The current theory: A mars sized body impacted with the earth 4.5 Ga, Tilted earths axis
• Material that ejected from this imapact created our mood

Evidence that moon was created from a giant impact

• The Earth has very high angular momentum of Earth's system moon
• It is believed that the material that compose the moon and earth are very simiilae
• They are both metal poor

Magma Ocean

• It takes Venus longer to rotate around the sun when combined to the earth
• Venus is thought to have rotated because of some large imapact

###Effects of Giant Impacts

• The axis tilt of Uranus is 98 degrees relative to the plane. This is thought to have been achieved because a giant imapct was subjected during earths reletively
• The moon Triton is the best example of an object captured by Nepute
• Density of Galilean moon is dependent on distance of the planet

Moons & Space Material

• Moons often come from the disc that surrounds a planet that is young
• Gallilanin moons have been formed out of jovian planets

Orbital Mechanics

• A 1-meter cube is 1mx1mx1m = 1 m^3
• A 2-meter cube is 2mx2mx2m = 8 m^3
• A 3-meter cube is 3mx3mx3m = 27 m^3
• 1 km = 1000 m
• 1000x1000x1000 = 1,000,000,000 = 10^9 = 1 billion
• The word “planet” derives from the Greek word for “wanderer”

Theories

• Ptolemy (AD 90 c.a. AD 168) believed Earth was cantered in a universal setting.
• Because planets cant move around another planet Ptomely added Episcycles which is were planets dont move.
• Nicholas. Corpernicss proposed planet where sun is ceneterd in univere.
• The theory helps give reason to retrograde motion

Johaness Kelper and Motion

• Johaness tried to explain how mars moved which failed with circualr orbita.
• He then created 3 motioned laws that describe orbital dynamics
• Kelper 1 law states planet move with ellowptical orbitals while the sun at focus 0.85 Eccentricity a meausre of how ellipese is
• Eccentricity is calculable between 0 to 0

Kelpers Calculations

• Kelpers can be shown with Q or q to identify distant
• Its important to remember that math and formulas have correct scientific measure
• It important to look and and reason and see if measurment makes sence

Orbitals

• Orbibal space objects in space are define by semi axiis excentricly
• Inclincaiton is what creates difference in a orbit compared to the eculpiticle plane
• For the most parts panets have lower inclination and eccentricity which means that some plane is close the the same orbital plane
• Asteroids comets have more inclination and eccentricity

Kelpers Second Law

• A line connecting earth to the sun means they will sweeepout equal areas at a time
• Veclocis of a planet is nota constsnat

Kelpers Third Law

• The Square of the orbital period is proporational to cube ofsemi axis
• So for staurm its calculated that it takes 29.4 years

Hally

• A comets orbital is 76, semi major axis calculated 13
• Eccentristy has lead to a great decription in how orbitals are calculated
• Sir Ircc nEwton explained gravity and the mOtion in 1643-1727

Newtons Calculation

• The theorey calcuatlions are shown in formualr where the consatnt is 6.67
• Its is rewrittrn that m1 shows balling balan
• While m2 shows how to caculate the eath in gravity
• Always makes sure to remember units

Canonball

• Canonball disatnce deopensd on the velcois, and its trajectory

Orbital Patterns

• Gravtiy helps create the force for planetary obribla and motion.
• All matter is made by newtosn 2 law with keplers

Asteroids

• Asteroids often create oebital resonance through gravitational forces which leads to to the asteroid

Comets

• Comets are prone to have inclined orbitals and both asteroids can have inclined orbitals

Comets II

• Repeated gravitaional impact between smaller and larger objets
• Asteroid 9992490 had caused some concerns in past

Comets and Meteroites and Astroids

• Cluess from the beginning
• between mars and jupiter lies aterioid belt , this consists of rocks around the size of km to larger than 1 km

Origin Of Comets and Asteroids

• Many comets are thought to be from Asteroids
• Vesta 4 is thought to be the second largets asteroid
• Its is thought to be apart of the asteroid ecuritites

Meterotes and Compositional Analaysiss

• Its is thought to have a core structure of differentaiion, core mantlye crust
• A major clue to know comoposiotin of of asteroids, is understanding their basic color is derived form material and the wavelengths that abosyr light
• Asteroids change thhe reflectance of color and composotion as welll

Cometsss

• Compets is made up of of small collections of ice and rock like material
• Compets help provide information about the soalr system

In 1066

• A stat appreaed and it reamied for 15 days
• The comet gas contains about 90% H2O
• As a compt gets closer some material evaporates called thhee coma
• Gas tials flluroeces as theyy get close to the sun

Comet Nuclei

• It is the solid portion and range from 100mm to 40km

Asteroids and Compets III

• They often are maade up off o water ics conomide methande ammonnia ect
• When they impact land their is little gavity , a good landing occurred on rossetti

DEEP impact Mission

DEEP impact launched to tempeli Specturla helps find gas and dust,

Asteroid collisionnns

Collusions can releease dust to the system The whote fuzz helps make things

Meterdoirds

Those in the earths atmporspheres are around greater thandn cm long As they descnedn and are subject to fricituion, which leads to meltaing and and oblation

• If the meterorids survives, they aare classsifedd as
• Most mmeterorids ddo nnot surviive

Meterodid

Meterors eneter the erarths atmoiosphere It is thought thart the are slolwerd ddonw and down These idps

Meteorite Falls or Finds

Meterorite finds are finds afterfey fall They all tend to be the sshaarra

Types of meteorite

Stoney: conredties Achondrite:

Stony

• Made by iron an nockele

Asteroids spectra class

Stony probablly comae from acheite

carbon: Dark and primary comp from drom dr Metaliic- probavaly come from irron and nicketel Arond 999 are chronditic , ,5 r iron mmeteroitooes

Meteorite V - Chronditie

• The suun atmostmpherere , Carboncaesus chondrtite:

Asterroids & Meteorites

In contratrts chondrites

• It comes from a more concimplateds geooholoig history than chodtrite
• Many anchrites have the same compositinbs and looks same as tetterial volcanic rock basalt A speciial class of chrodite
• All of hem come of large vessta asteroid

Final Details

Wharts the exstencee tells abouo what hapen with thmre

• The ioron and scilicates have see