Introduction to anatomy a

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Questions and Answers

What position describes the body as if standing upright with head and toes directed forward?

Lateral position

Anatomical position (correct)

Supine position

Prone position

Which plane divides the body into anterior and posterior parts?

Transverse plane

Coronal plane (correct)

Sagittal plane

Median plane

What term refers to movements that decrease the angle between two body parts?

Elevation

Flexion (correct)

Abduction

Extension

Which term describes the position closer to the midline of the body?

Medial Signup and view all the answers

Which section is cut at right angles to the long axis of the body?

Transverse section Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the skeletal system?

It includes both cartilage and bone Signup and view all the answers

What function does cartilage NOT perform?

Store energy Signup and view all the answers

Which anatomical term describes movement away from the midline?

Abduction Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'anatomy' typically refer to when used by itself?

The study of structures visible without magnification Signup and view all the answers

Which approach to studying anatomy is organized by organ systems?

Systemic anatomy Signup and view all the answers

How is regional anatomy characterized?

By emphasizing relationships among body parts within defined regions Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of anatomy in medical practice?

It helps in understanding patient disease and clinical signs Signup and view all the answers

What does clinical anatomy emphasize?

The practical application of anatomy to clinical problems Signup and view all the answers

What is the anatomical position characterized by?

Standing upright with palms facing anteriorly Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT one of the anatomical parts based on regions?

Skull Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes microscopic anatomy?

The study of cells and tissues utilizing a microscope Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of sesamoid bones?

To reduce friction on tendons Signup and view all the answers

How does parathyroid hormone affect bone health?

Increases calcium mobilization by stimulating bone resorption Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by a gradual softening of the bone due to failure to calcify?

Osteomalacia Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes osteopenia?

Reduced bone mass due to inadequate osteoid synthesis Signup and view all the answers

What is a common sign of osteoporosis?

Kyphosis Signup and view all the answers

What type of joint is characterized by being united by cartilage and having no joint cavity?

Cartilaginous Joint Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes fibrous joints?

They permit little movement and are connected by fibrous tissue. Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fibrous joint involves bones connected by fibrous connective tissue with no movement?

Sutures Signup and view all the answers

What kind of joints are the epiphyseal cartilage plates categorized as?

Primary cartilaginous joints Signup and view all the answers

Which type of joint allows only flexion and extension?

Hinge joints Signup and view all the answers

Which feature is characteristic of synovial joints?

Joint cavity Signup and view all the answers

What type of joint is characterized by an oval-shaped articulation allowing for multiple axes of rotation?

Condylar joints Signup and view all the answers

Which joint type resembles a door hinge?

Hinge joints Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is characterized by degeneration of articular cartilage?

Osteoarthritis Signup and view all the answers

Saddle joints allow which types of movement?

Flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction Signup and view all the answers

What type of joint permits rotation around a single longitudinal axis?

Pivot joints Signup and view all the answers

What type of cartilage is the most common in the human body?

Hyaline cartilage Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bone includes the humerus and femur?

Long bones Signup and view all the answers

What is the central region of a long bone called?

Diaphysis Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bones are approximately cuboid in shape?

Short bones Signup and view all the answers

What type of tissue makes up the majority of bones?

Connective tissue Signup and view all the answers

During bone development, what is the growth zone located between diaphysis and epiphysis called?

Epiphyseal plate Signup and view all the answers

Which type of bone includes the ribs and sternum?

Flat bones Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes fibrocartilage compared to other types of cartilage?

Limited number of cells and ground substance Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Anatomy: The Study of Structure

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body, both gross (visible without magnification) and microscopic (requiring magnification).
Microscopic anatomy, also called histology, focuses on the study of cells and tissues using a microscope.
Anatomy is essential for understanding human disease, guiding medical diagnosis and treatment.

Approaches to Studying Anatomy

Systemic anatomy focuses on organ systems' structure and function, like the respiratory, digestive, or reproductive systems.
Regional anatomy examines anatomical structures within specific body regions, such as the thorax or abdomen, emphasizing relationships between different systems, like muscles, nerves, and blood vessels.
Clinical (applied) anatomy emphasizes the practical application of anatomical knowledge for clinical diagnoses and treatment solutions.

Anatomical Regions

The body is divided into distinct regions:
- Head
- Neck
- Thorax
- Back
- Abdomen
- Pelvis/perineum
- Lower limb
- Upper limb

Anatomical Position

The standard anatomical position refers to a person standing upright:
- Head, gaze, and toes facing forward (anteriorly).
- Arms at the sides, palms facing forward (anteriorly).
- Lower limbs together, feet parallel.

Anatomical Planes

Sagittal planes are vertical planes dividing the body into right and left portions.
- The median sagittal plane divides the body into equal right and left halves.
Coronal planes are vertical planes that divide the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) parts.
Transverse sections (cross sections) are slices of the body or its parts cut perpendicular to the body's longitudinal axis.
Oblique sections are slices made at angles other than the standard anatomical planes.

Anatomical Terms

Anterior (ventral): Front of the body/structure.
Posterior (dorsal): Back of the body/structure.
Medial: Toward the midline of the body.
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
Superior: Above or higher.
Inferior: Below or lower.
Proximal: Closer to the origin of a structure.
Distal: Further from the origin of a structure.
Cranial: Towards the head.
Caudal: Towards the tail (coccyx).
Superficial: Near the surface.
Deep: Away from the surface.

Movements and Planes

Flexion: Decreasing the angle between bones.
Extension: Increasing the angle between bones.
Abduction: Moving a limb away from the midline.
Adduction: Moving a limb towards the midline.
Rotation (medial and lateral): Turning a limb along its axis.
Circumduction: Circular motion of a limb.
Pronation: Rotating the forearm so palm faces posteriorly.
Supination: Rotating the forearm so palm faces anteriorly.
Eversion: Turning the sole of the foot outwards.
Inversion: Turning the sole of the foot inwards.
Dorsiflexion: Bending the foot upwards.
Plantarflexion: Bending the foot downwards.
Opposition: Touching the thumb to other fingers.
Reposition: Returning the thumb to its anatomical position.
Protraction: Moving a structure forward, like the jaw.
Retraction: Moving a structure backward, like the jaw.
Elevation: Raising a structure, like the scapula.
Depression: Lowering a structure, like the scapula.

Skeletal System

Consists of cartilage and bone.
Subdivided into:
- Axial skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, ribs, and sternum.
- Appendicular skeleton: Limbs, shoulder girdle, and pelvic girdle.

Cartilage

Avascular connective tissue with extracellular fibers embedded within a matrix containing cells.
Types:
- Hyaline cartilage: Most common, found in articular surfaces, nose, trachea.
- Elastic cartilage: Contains elastic fibers, found in the ear and epiglottis.
- Fibrocartilage: Strong cartilage with collagen fibers, found in intervertebral discs and menisci.
Functions of cartilage:
- Support soft tissues.
- Provide smooth surfaces for joint articulation.
- Enable bone growth and development.

Bones

Calcified connective tissue with cells (osteocytes) embedded within a matrix.
Classified by shape:
- Long bones: Longer than they are wide (e.g., femur, humerus).
- Short bones: Cube-shaped (e.g., carpals, tarsals).
- Flat bones: Thin, broad, and often curved (e.g., skull bones, ribs).
- Irregular bones: Complex shapes (e.g., vertebrae, facial bones).
- Sesamoid bones: Develop within tendons (e.g., patella).
- Endochondral bones: Develop from cartilage (e.g., most long bones).
- Membranous bones: Develop directly from mesenchyme (e.g., flat bones of the skull).

Long Bone Structure

Diaphysis: The shaft or central region of a long bone.
- Composed of compact bone surrounding the marrow cavity.
Metaphysis: The growth zone between the diaphysis and epiphysis during bone development.
Epiphyses: Expanded articular ends of the bone.
- Composed of spongy bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone.

Joints

Points of union between two or more bones.
Classifications:
- Fibrous joints (Synarthroses):
  - United by fibrous tissue.
  - Have no joint cavity.
  - Permit little to no movement (e.g., sutures of the skull).
- Cartilaginous joints:
  - United by cartilage.
  - No joint cavity.
  - Types:
    - Primary cartilaginous joints (Synchondroses): Connected by hyaline cartilage, permit growth but not movement (e.g., epiphyseal plate).
    - Secondary cartilaginous joints (Symphyses): Connected by fibrocartilage, slightly movable (e.g., pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs).
- Synovial (Diarthrodial) joints:
  - Freely movable joints.
  - Characterized by:
    - Joint cavity
    - Articular (hyaline) cartilage
    - Synovial membrane
    - Articular capsule
  - Subtypes classified by shape and type of movement.

Types of Synovial Joints

Plane (Gliding) Joints:
- Flat articular surfaces allow gliding or sliding movements.
- Found in: intercarpal, intertarsal, acromioclavicular, and sternoclavicular joints.
Hinge (Ginglymus) Joints:
- Allow flexion and extension.
- Found in: elbow, knee, ankle, interphalangeal joints.
Pivot (Trochoid) Joints:
- Allow rotation around a central axis (medial and lateral rotation).
- Found in: proximal radioulnar, distal radioulnar, atlantoaxial joints.
Condylar (Ellipsoidal) Joints:
- Two convex condyles articulate with two concave condyles.
- Allow flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circular motion.
- Found in: radiocarpal (wrist), metacarpophalangeal, knee (tibiofemoral), atlantooccipital joints.
Saddle (Sellar) Joints:
- Resemble a saddle on a horse's back.
- Allow flexion/extension, abduction/adduction, and circumduction; limited axial rotation (thumb).
- Found in: carpometacarpal joint of the thumb, between the femur and patella.
Ball-and-Socket (Spheroidal or Cotyloid) Joints:
- Allow movement in many directions (multiaxial).
- Found in: shoulder (glenohumeral), hip (acetabulofemoral) joints.

Clinical Conditions

Osteoblast: Cells that synthesize new bone.
Osteoclast: Cells that break down bone matrix and release calcium and minerals.
Osteoid: Organic matrix of bone before mineralization.
Osteomalacia: Softening of bone due to inadequate mineralization (vitamin D deficiency, renal tubular dysfunction).
Osteopenia: Reduced bone mass due to insufficient osteoid synthesis.
Osteoporosis: Age-related disorder where bone resorption exceeds bone formation, leading to decreased bone mass and increased fracture risk.
- Often affects the hips, vertebrae, and wrists.
Osteopetrosis: Abnormally dense bone obliterating the marrow cavity due to defective bone resorption.
Osteoarthritis: Non-inflammatory degenerative joint disease.
- Characterized by cartilage breakdown, joint pain, and stiffness.
- Commonly affects: hands, fingers, hips, knees, feet, and spine.
Rheumatoid Arthritis: Inflammatory disease primarily affecting joints.

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