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• Founding of the Olympic Games occured in 776 B.C.

Periodization of Greek History

• Archaic Age existed from 750-480 B.C.
• Classical Age existed from 480-323 B.C.
• Hellenistic Age existed from 323-30 B.C.
• King Xerxes' invasion of Greece occured in 480 B.C.
• The Peloponnesian War existed from 431-404 B.C.
• The King's Peace transpired in 387 B.C.
• The reign of Philip II of Macedon transpired from 359-336 B.C.
• The Battle of Chaeronea occured in 338 B.C.
• Alexander the Great lived from 356-323 B.C.
• The Battle of Granicus occured in 334 B.C.
• The Battle of Issus occured in 333 B.C.
• The Battle of Gaugamela transpired in 331 B.C.

Ancient Societies and Political Structures

• Chiefdom is a hierarchical political organization led by a chief, often based on kinship.
• The leadership of a chiefdom is centralized, but not as institutionalized as in states.
• Polis: a city-state in ancient Greece, consisting of an urban center and its surrounding territory.
• The characteristic of the Polis is political independence and self-governance.
• Isonomia is the principle of equal political rights and equality under the law, foundational to early Greek democracy.
• Hegemony: Dominance of one state or political entity over others, often through cultural, political, or military means.
• Common Peace: A concept in ancient Greece referring to a universal peace agreement among city-states.
• Common peace aimed to end warfare and establish stability

Persian Empire

• Ahura Mazda: The supreme god in Zoroastrianism, representing truth and light, worshiped as the creator of all things.
• Achaemenid: The dynasty that founded and ruled the first Persian Empire (c. 550-330 BC).
• The Achaemenid Dynasty started with Cyrus the Great.
• Cyrus the Great: Founder of the Achaemenid Empire, known for his conquests and progressive policies, including respect for local customs and religions.
• Darius I: Third king of the Achaemenid Empire (r. 522–486 BC), who expanded the empire and established administrative reforms.
• Xerxes: Son of Darius I, famous for his invasion of Greece in 480 BC, including battles like Thermopylae and Salamis.

Greek Leagues and Conflicts

• Delian League: A coalition of Greek city-states led by Athens, formed after the Persian Wars to defend against Persia, later evolving into the Athenian Empire.
• Athenian Empire: The transformation of the Delian League into an empire under Athenian control, characterized by dominance over its allies.
• Peloponnesian League: A military alliance was led by Sparta, opposing Athenian dominance.
• The Peloponnesian League was pivotal in the Peloponnesian War.
• King's Peace: A peace treaty in 387 BC brokered by the Persian King Artaxerxes II, which ended the Corinthian War and asserted Persian influence over Greek affairs.
• Second Athenian League: A reformed alliance led by Athens in the 4th century BC, designed to be less oppressive than the Delian League.

Macedonia and Alexander the Great

• Republic of North Macedonia: A modern country in the Balkans, historically linked to the ancient kingdom of Macedon.
• Argead Clan: The royal dynasty of Macedon, from which Alexander the Great descended.
• Philip II of Macedon: Father of Alexander the Great, who unified Greece through diplomacy and military power, setting the stage for Alexander's conquests.
• Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great, known for her strong influence and alleged involvement in dynastic intrigues.
• Peace of Philocrates: A peace treaty in 346 BC between Athens and Macedon, marking Macedonian ascendancy in Greek affairs.
• League of Corinth: A federation of Greek states established by Philip II to unify Greece under his leadership against Persia.

Greek Literature and Mythology

• Heracles: A divine hero in Greek mythology, known for his strength and the Twelve Labors; considered an ancestor of Alexander the Great.
• Achilles: The greatest Greek warrior in The Iliad, a central figure in the Trojan War myth.
• Iliad: An epic poem attributed to Homer, recounting the events of the Trojan War, focusing on the hero Achilles.
• Trojan War: A legendary conflict between Greece and Troy, central to Greek mythology and epic poetry.
• Protesilaus: The first Greek to die in the Trojan War, known for his bravery in leaping ashore at Troy.

Military Terms and Units

• Macedonian Phalanx: A military formation of infantry armed with long spears (sarissas), used effectively by Philip II and Alexander the Great.
• Sarissa: A long spear (up to 6 meters) used by the Macedonian phalanx, giving them an advantage in battle.
• Hetairoi: The Companion Cavalry, an elite Macedonian cavalry unit that served as Alexander the Great's personal guard.
• Pezhetairoi: The foot soldiers of the Macedonian phalanx, considered the backbone of Alexander's army.
• Hypaspistae (Hypaspists): Elite infantry in Alexander's army, serving as a link between the phalanx and cavalry.
• Basilikoi Paides: The royal pages of Macedon, young nobles trained for leadership roles in the court and military.
• Agrianians: A tribe from the region of Paeonia, serving as light infantry in Alexander's army.
• Prodromoi: Light cavalry in Alexander's army, used for reconnaissance and skirmishing.
• Companion Cavalry: The elite cavalry force of Alexander's army, pivotal in many battles.
• Ilae: Squadrons of cavalry in the Macedonian army.
• Taxeis: Tactical units or battalions in the Macedonian phalanx.

Key Battles in Alexander's Campaign

• Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC): A decisive victory for Philip II over the Greek city-states, marking the end of Greek independence.
• Battle of Granicus: Alexander's first major battle against the Persian Empire in 334 BC, securing Asia Minor.
• Battle of Issus: A major victory for Alexander in 333 BC against Darius III of Persia.
• Siege of Tyre: A seven-month siege in 332 BC, where Alexander captured the heavily fortified island city.

Religious and Cultural Terms

• Oracle of Siwa: A famous oracle in Egypt where Alexander was proclaimed the son of Zeus-Ammon.
• Panhellenism: The idea of Greek unity, often used to justify campaigns against non-Greek enemies like Persia.

Historiography and Sources

• Papyrus Roll: A scroll made from papyrus used for writing in the ancient Mediterranean.
• Parchment Codex: A book was made from animal skins, replacing scrolls as the dominant writing medium in the Roman era.
• Quellenkritik: Source criticism, the analysis of historical sources to evaluate their reliability.
• Quellenforschung: Source research, focusing on identifying and comparing historical sources.

Historians and Authors

• Thucydides: A Greek historian known for his History of the Peloponnesian War, emphasizing critical analysis and factual reporting.
• Callisthenes: A historian accompanying Alexander, known for documenting his campaigns but later executed for conspiracy.
• Ptolemy I Soter: One of Alexander's generals and later ruler of Egypt; authored a history of Alexander's campaigns.
• Aristobulus: An engineer and historian who chronicled Alexander's expeditions.
• Chares: A courtier of Alexander who wrote about court life.
• Nearchus: An admiral in Alexander's fleet who chronicled his naval journeys.
• Cleitarchus: Historian whose works on Alexander influenced later sources.
• Diodorus Siculus: A Greek historian who compiled a universal history, including Alexander's campaigns.
• Pompeius Trogus: A Roman historian whose works on world history included accounts of Alexander.
• Justin: A Roman historian who summarized Trogus' work in Epitome of the Philippic Histories.
• Curtius Rufus: A Roman historian who wrote Histories of Alexander the Great, rich in dramatization.
• Arrian: Considered the most reliable source on Alexander, author of Anabasis of Alexander.
• Plutarch: A biographer and moralist whose Lives include a biography of Alexander.
• Vulgate Tradition: A term for the less reliable, more romanticized histories of Alexander, derived from Cleitarchus' works.

Alexander's Inner Circle and Key Figures

• Parmenion: Alexander's trusted general, later executed for alleged conspiracy.
• Attalus: A general under Philip II, whose family ties complicated Macedonian politics.
• Pausanias of Orestis: The assassin of Philip II, motivated by personal grievances.

Periodization of Greek History

• Stone Age transitioned to the Bronze Age (Minoan, Mycenaean civilizations).
• Dark Age (1100-750 BC): Collapse of Mycenaean states
• Archaic Age (750-480 BC): Rise of polis (city-states), hoplite warfare, colonization
• Classical Age (480-323 BC): Persian Wars, rise of Athens & Sparta, Peloponnesian War
• Hellenistic Age (323-30 BC): Begins with Alexander's conquests

Sociopolitical Evolution Theory

• Bands (hunter-gatherers)
• Tribes (settled, egalitarian farmers)
• Chiefdoms (formal leadership, surplus redistribution)
• States (centralized government, control over violence)
• Civilized States (states + writing systems)

Greek Prehistory & Development of Sociopolitical Structures

• Bands transitioned to Tribes, which later became Chiefdoms, and eventually transitioned to States
• The Polis system emerged by the 8th century BC.
• Collapse of Bronze Age led to return to chiefdoms during the Dark Age
• By the 8th-century Renaissance, Greece shifted back to state-level societies (city-states)

Eighth-Century Renaissance

• Trade expansion spurred population growth and Greek alphabet development
• Panhellenic Sanctuaries: Delphi, Olympia (first Olympic Games, 776 BC)
• Rise of Hoplite warfare: heavily armed citizen-soldiers
• Origin of the polis (city-state): A city with surrounding villages acting as a self-governing unit

Key Polis Institutions

• Archons (chief officials)
• Council of Elders (aristocrats)
• Assembly of citizens (hoplite warriors)

Crisis of the Archaic Age (750-480 BC)

• Population growth led to resource scarcity
• Debt slavery and elite competition caused social tensions
• Rise in importance of hoplite farmers
• Key reforms by Solon of Athens (594 BC) addressed debt and political rights

Reactions to the Archaic Crisis

• Colonization transpired to find new resources
• Rise of tyrannies in various city-states
• Codification of laws (e.g., Draco's harsh legal code)
• Institutionalization of the polis as a political unit
• Cleisthenes (508 BC): introduced isonomia (equal rights), leading to early democracy

The Rise of the Persian Empire

• Cyrus the Great (559-530 BC):
  • Overthrew the Medes (~550 BC)
  • Conquered Lydia (546 BC) and Babylon (539 BC)
  • Known for respecting local customs and the Cyrus Cylinder (early human rights declaration)
• Cambyses II (530-522 BC): Conquered Egypt
• Darius I (521-486 BC:)
  • Expanded into India, reorganized the empire, promoted Ahura Mazda
  • Behistun Inscription: Key source on his rule

The Persian Wars (490-479 BC)

• Battle of Marathon (490 BC): Athenian victory against Persia
• Xerxes' invasion (480-479 BC):
  • Battle of Thermopylae: 300 Spartans' last stand
  • Battle of Salamis (naval victory)
• Battle of Plataea: Final defeat of Persian forces

From Delian League to Athenian Empire

• Delian League (478 BC): Alliance led by Athens to defend against Persia
• Athens turned it into an Athenian Empire, exerting control over other Greek states
• Pericles' Golden Age (479-431 BC): Democratic reforms, Parthenon construction, cultural flourishing

Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC)

• Athens fought against Sparta: Athenian Empire vs. Peloponnesian League
• Sparta allied with Persia (412 BC) to defeat Athens
• Athens was defeated in 404 BC, leading to Greek instability and setting the stage for Macedonian rise

Peace & Stability Among Greek Poleis

• Greece wasn't unified, it consisted of many independent city-statess (poleis).
• Two models for peace:
  • Hegemony: One city-state dominates (e.g., Sparta, Athens, Thebes).
    • Problem: No polis was strong enough to maintain permanent control.
  • Common Peace: All poleis are autonomous, enforced by an external power (like the King's Peace with Persia as guarantor).
    • Problem: Powerful poleis abused this to gain dominance.

Struggles for Hegemony in 4th-Century Greece

- Spartan Supremacy (404-371 BC):
    - Sparta won the Peloponnesian War but failed to maintain control.
    - Corinthian War (395-387 BC): Persia switched sides to support Athens against Sparta.
    - King's Peace (387 BC): Persia dictated peace terms, allowing it to control Greek affairs indirectly.
- Theban Hegemony (371-362 BC):
    - Battle of Leuctra (371 BC): Theban general Epaminondas defeated Sparta, ending Spartan dominance.
    - Thebes tried to control Greece but faced opposition from Athens.
- Second Athenian League (377-355 BC):
    - Formed to counter Spartan power and maintain common peace.
    - Initially respected autonomy but became imperialistic, leading to the Social War (357-355 BC), where Athens lost key allies.

Key Battles & Events

• Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC): Sparta defeats Athens.
• Corinthian War (395-387 BC): Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos vs. Sparta, with Persian involvement shifting sides.
• Battle of Leuctra (371 BC): Sparta's defeat marked the rise of Thebes.
• Battle of Mantinea (362 BC): Indecisive; left Greece in chaos and vulnerable to Macedonian influence.
• Social War (357-355 BC): Athens loses allies due to renewed imperialism.

Ancient Macedonia: Geography, Society, and Politics

• Location: North of Greece, divided into Lower Macedonia (fertile plains, royal center) and Upper Macedonia(mountain tribes).
• Resources: Rich in timber, horses, and agriculture but politically unstable.
• Sociopolitical Structure:
  • Primitive chiefdom-level kingdom.
  • The king relied on support from tribal leaders (Hetairoi or "companions").
  • No fixed succession; kingship depended on charisma and military success.
  • Polygamy among kings led to numerous heirs and frequent dynastic conflicts.

• Macedonians spoke a Greek dialect and shared Greek religion.
• Southern Greeks viewed Macedonians as “half-barbarians”.
• Alexander I was allowed to compete in the Olympic Games, indicating some Greek identity.

History of Macedonia Before Philip II

1. Amyntas I (512 BC): Became a Persian vassal.
2. Alexander I ‘The Philhellene' (495-454 BC): Allied with Athens but navigated between Greek and Persian interests.
3. Perdiccas II (454-413 BC): Managed alliances with Athens and Sparta during the Peloponnesian War.
4. Archelaus (413-399 BC): Strengthened the kingdom; brought culture (e.g., Euripides lived at Pella).
5. Amyntas III (393-369 BC): His sons included Alexander II, Perdiccas III, and Philip II.

Rise of Philip II (359-336 BC)

• Background:
  • Third son of Amyntas III.
  • Held hostage in Thebes (368-365 BC), where he learned about military tactics (Theban innovations like the sacred band).
• Becoming King (359 BC):
  • Took the throne after his brother Perdiccas III was killed.
  • Reformed the Macedonian army, introducing the sarissa (long spear) and perfecting the phalanx formation.
  • Laid the groundwork for Macedonian dominance, setting the stage for Alexander's conquests.

Key Themes & Takeaways

• Macedonia was a resource-rich but unstable chiefdom.
• Frequent dynastic conflicts transpired , along with external threats from Paeonians, Thracians, and Illyrians.

Philip II's Early Life & Rise (382-336 BC)

• Third son of Amyntas III.
• Held hostage in Thebes (368-365 BC), where he learned advanced military tactics.
• Became king in 359 BC after his brother Perdiccas III was killed in battle.

Challenges Philip Faced in 359 BC

• There was a Threat of Paeonian invasion, which he resolved with bribes.
• Two rival claimants existed for the throne:
  • One was backed by Thrace, subsequently, he bribed the Thracian king.
  • Another was supported by Athens, who Philip deceived diplomatically.
• Philip Asssassinated his half-brother and exiled other potential rivals.
• Winter 359/8: Initiated the reorganization of the Macedonian Army.

Philip's Internal Consolidation

1. Social Reforms:

• Spread Greek culture and education.
• Created the Corps of Pages (Basilikoi Paides): a corps of Sons of nobles educated at court to ensure loyalty.
• Companions (Hetairoi): Nobles lived at court and formed close bonds with the king.

2. Economic and Infrastructure Development:

• He built roads and founded cities such as Philippi.
• Exploited gold and silver mines, increasing wealth (1000 talents!).

Military Reforms

1. Standing Army:

• This was the First professional army in Greece, that emphasized discipline.

2. Reorganization of Troops:

• Expanded Companion Cavalry: Elite force from the aristocracy.
• Created the Macedonian Phalanx (Pezhetairoi):
  • Soldiers armed with the Sarissa (5-6m pike) and a small shield.
• Philip formed the Hypaspists: Elite infantry linking cavalry and phalanx, and Enhanced light infantry (archers, slingers, javelin throwers).

Tactical Innovations

• Emphasis on combined arms tactics: Coordinating cavalry, phalanx, and light troops.
• Introduced siege weapons like battering rams and torsion catapults.
• Military Incentives: Provided land to soldiers, ensuring their loyalty and economic stability.

Philip's Expansion and Conquests

1. Northern Tribes:
   • 358 BC: Defeated Paeonians and Illyrians.
2. Marriage Alliances:

• Philip Married Olympias (Molossian princess of Epirus) and Illyrian princess, securing alliances.

3. Control of Strategic Cities:

• 357 BC: He captured Amphipolis and Pydna during Athens' Social War.
• 356 BC: He took Potidaea and founded Philippi (securing silver mines).

4. Sacred War and Influence in Greece:

• 355-352 BC: Fought in the Third Sacred War in Thessaly.
• 352 BC: Became Archon of Thessalian League.
• He was Blocked at Thermopylae by Athenians.

5. Further Conquests (348-340 BC):
   • Destroyed Olynthus and took Chalcidice in 348 BC.
   • Signed Peace of Philocrates with Athens in 346 BC.
   • Gained a seat on the Amphictyonic Council at Delphi.

Philip's Methods of Expansion

1. Military Victory: Successful battles and sieges.
2. Diplomacy: He acquired Marriage alliances to secure political ties, and used Bribes and political interference in rival states.
3. Conquest of Cities: By his military campaigns, he seized key ports and fortresses to control trade and military routes.

Philip's Legacy (359-336 BC)

• His Internal consolidation and military reforms made Macedonia the dominant power in Greece.
• His strategic brilliance in both politics and warfare laid the groundwork for Alexander the Great's future conquests.
• Philip was Known for his charisma, ambition, and ability to outmaneuver rivals diplomatically and militarily.

Important Dates to Remember

• 359 BC: Philip became king.
• 358 BC: Defeated Paeonians and Illyrians.
• 357 BC: Seized Amphipolis and Pydna.
• 352 BC: Won in Thessaly, became archon of Thessalian League.
• 348 BC: Destroyed Olynthus; gained control of Chalcidice.
• 346 BC: The Peace of Philocrates with Athens occurred.
• 336 BC: Philip was assassinated, and Alexander became king.

Key Themes & Takeaways

• Macedonia evolved from a resource-rich, unstable chiefdom, vulnerable to internal strife and external threats.
• Faced with the Threat from Paeonians, Philip Resolved it with bribes.
• There were Rival claimants to the throne backed by Thrace and Athens, who Philip Neutralized through bribery and deception.
• His military achievements were demonstrated through Reorganization of the Macedonian Army during Winter 359/8, which lead the creation of a standing army with professional training.

• Philip Introduced the Macedonian Phalanx (Pezhetairoi) armed with the sarissa (5-6m long pike), Expanded Companion Cavalry and introduced elite Hypaspists to link cavalry and infantry.
• Developed siege warfare techniques (e.g., catapults, battering rams), Instituted combined arms tactics, integrating infantry, cavalry, and light troops, and Provided land to soldiers, securing loyalty.

Economic and Infrastructure Development

• Built roads and cities like Philippi.
• Exploited gold and silver mines, bringing in substantial revenue.

Philip's Expansion and Conquest (358-336 BC) Key Conquests

• 358 BC: Defeated Paeonians and Illyrians.
• 357 BC: Captured Amphipolis and Pydna while Athens was distracted by the Social War.
• 352 BC: Became archon of the Thessalian League after victory in the Third Sacred War.
• 348 BC: Destroyed Olynthus, securing Chalcidice.
• 346 BC: Signed the Peace of Philocrates with Athens, gaining political influence in central Greece.
• 340 BC: Attacked Byzantium, causing Athens to revoke the Peace of Philocrates, escalating tensions.

Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC)

• Philip's forces comprised of 30,000 infantry and 2,000 cavalry led by Alexander.
• Alexander played a pivotal role, destroying the Sacred Band of Thebes.
• Athens and Thebes were defeated, marking the end of Greek city-state independence.

- Formation of the League of Corinth (337 BC)

• Unified Greek states (except Sparta) under Macedonian leadership while combining hegemony with the concept of common peace.
• This declared ware against Persia, setting the stage for Alexander's future campaigns.

The Young Alexander (356-338 BC)

• The sources about Alexanders life, were Mainly from Plutarch's Life of Alexander.
• Alexander was born (356 BC), ,the same day as Parmenion's victory over the Illyrians and Philip's horse winning at the Olympics..
• Myths surrounded his birth, including Olympias dreaming of a thunderbolt striking her womb(symbolizing Zeus).
• Alexander had Parental Influence from his Father Philip II, and Mother Olympias. Philip II was a descendant of Heracles, Taught Alexander bravery and military ambition, and Their relationship was marked by competition. Olympias was a descendant of Achilles, Practiced Dionysian mysticism and had significant influence on Alexander's religious and emotional development.

Education and Tutors

• From Leonidas of Epirus, Alexander emphasized austerity.
• Lysimachus of Acarnania helped Istill love for Homer's Iliad and linked Alexander to Achilles.
• Aristotle (343-340 BC) Taught Alexander science, philosophy, and politics, Provided a special edition of the Iliad, which became Alexander's guide to virtue (arete) and excellence.

Key Events in Youth

• He demostrated Alexander's Taming of Bucephalas (344 BC) demonstrated Alexander's leadership and courage at age 12.
• Was in Regency at 16, served as regent when Philip campaigned against Byzantium, Led a successful military campaign against the Thracian Maedi and founded Alexandroupolis.

Alexander's Personal Life

• His Childhood Friends were Harpalus and Nearchus, who were Trusted friends & played important roles in Alexander's later campaigns, and Hephaestion his closest friend and possibly romantic partner.
  • Hephaestion demostrated his Sexuality, where Sources suggest Alexander had a bisexual orientation, typical of Macedonian court culture. There was also a Strong emotional bond with Hephaestion compared to Achilles and Patroclus, and later Married Roxane (Sogdian princess) and two Persian princesses later in life.

Philip's Final Years and Legacy

• Under his Invasion of Greece (340-338 BC), after seizing Elateia, Philip's forces invaded Greece, prompting Athens and Thebes to ally against him.
  • This lead to the Battle of Chaeronea (338 BC) which Cemented Macedonian control over Greece. There was Formation of the League of Corinth (337 BC) where by Unified greek state, states under Macedonian leadership with the common, goal of invading Persia. Under Philips Assassination (336 BC) Alexander was Murdered during the wedding of his daughter and Alexander succeeded him, inheriting a powerful, unified Greece ready for expansion.