Biological bases of mental life and behaviour

Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of sensory neurons?

Connect other neurons within the nervous system

Carry sensory information to the central nervous system (correct)

Transmit commands from the brain to muscles

Process information from the cell body

Which part of a neuron is primarily responsible for receiving input from other cells?

Cell body

Axon

Myelin sheath

Dendrites (correct)

What characteristic does the myelin sheath provide to axons?

Enhances the speed of transmission of neural impulses (correct)

Serves as a protective barrier against physical damage

Enables sensory receptors to detect stimuli

Increases the efficiency of neurotransmitter release

Interneurons primarily function to:

Connect sensory and motor neurons together Signup and view all the answers

What happens to motor commands after they are transmitted by interneurons?

They are sent to glands and muscles through the spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about axon collateral branches is true?

They can enhance the efficiency of information transmission Signup and view all the answers

Why do newborns exhibit poor motor control?

Not all axons are myelinated at birth Signup and view all the answers

Demyelinating diseases, such as multiple sclerosis, affect which part of the neuron?

Myelin sheath Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of excitatory neurotransmitters?

Depolarize the postsynaptic membrane Signup and view all the answers

What does the blood-brain barrier primarily do?

Protects the brain from harmful substances Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with learning and memory?

Acetylcholine Signup and view all the answers

How does GABA function in the brain?

It acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter Signup and view all the answers

L-Dopa is primarily used to treat which condition?

Parkinson's disease Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the pituitary gland?

Stimulates and regulates other glands Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter is linked to mood and can affect aggression?

Serotonin Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter can cause excitotoxicity when present in high levels?

Glutamate Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of norepinephrine?

Attention and arousal Signup and view all the answers

Which type of neurotransmitter is primarily responsible for modulating the effects of other neurotransmitters?

Modulatory neurotransmitters Signup and view all the answers

What are the primary components of the peripheral nervous system?

Neurons that convey messages to and from the CNS Signup and view all the answers

Which hormones increase metabolic processes in the body during arousal?

Epinephrine and Norepinephrine Signup and view all the answers

Which condition is linked to low levels of serotonin?

Major depression Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'reflex arc' refer to?

A rapid response mechanism involving sensory and motor neurons Signup and view all the answers

Which gland plays a key role in regulating metabolism?

Thyroid gland Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hypothalamus play in the regulation of behaviors?

It regulates various behaviors including eating, sleeping, and emotional experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily involved in the regulation of fear responses?

Amygdala Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of the thalamus in sensory processing?

It acts as a switchboard routing sensory information to higher brain centres. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when there is damage to the reticular formation?

It can disrupt sleep patterns and alertness. Signup and view all the answers

How does the septal area contribute to behavior?

It plays a role in emotionally significant learning and behavioral responses. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of damage to the substantia nigra?

Deterioration associated with Parkinson's disease. Signup and view all the answers

How does the limbic system contribute to emotional experiences?

It plays a significant role in motivation, learning, and memory. Signup and view all the answers

What is blindsight a phenomenon of?

Responding to visual stimuli without conscious awareness. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is essential for storing new information in memory?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when there is damage to the basal ganglia?

Abnormal movements and difficulties in posture. Signup and view all the answers

What do neurons deep inside the tectum help humans learn regarding stimuli?

To approach or avoid stimuli linked with reward and punishment. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the thalamus serve concerning sensory information?

It acts as a relay to higher brain regions after processing. Signup and view all the answers

What is one function of the reticular formation?

It helps maintain alertness and wakefulness. Signup and view all the answers

What does the deterioration of the substantia nigra result in?

Symptoms of Parkinson's disease. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of monosynaptic reactions like the knee jerk reflex?

To produce automatic responses without involving the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Which system is primarily responsible for preparing the body for 'fight or flight'?

Sympathetic system Signup and view all the answers

What does the parasympathetic system primarily do?

Stimulates digestion and energy conservation. Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic describes the evolution of the human brain compared to simpler organisms?

It evolved to include highly specialized parts. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for coordinating movement and balance?

Cerebellum Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nervous system is involved in transmitting information between the brain and the body?

Spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What role does the medulla oblongata play in the human body?

It controls heart rate and respiration. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the function of the reticular formation?

It regulates conscious awareness and arousal levels. Signup and view all the answers

How are sensory and motor fibers organized in the spinal cord?

Sensory fibers relay information to the dorsal side. Signup and view all the answers

The structure responsible for linking the medulla oblongata with the cerebellum is known as what?

Pons Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'localisation of function' imply about the brain?

Different regions are specialized but work as a network. Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of the human brain's mass is composed of the cortex?

82 percent Signup and view all the answers

What describes the primary function of spinal nerves?

To transmit sensory and motor information to and from the spinal cord. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the dopamine-rich neurons of the substantia nigra?

Project to the basal ganglia Signup and view all the answers

What happens when the dopamine-rich neurons die, as seen in Parkinson’s disease?

The basal ganglia stop functioning properly Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the primary cortex areas?

Process raw sensory information Signup and view all the answers

Which area of the brain is specifically associated with planning and executing voluntary movements?

Motor cortex Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following lobes is primarily involved in visual processing?

Occipital lobe Signup and view all the answers

What effect does damage to the primary areas of the occipital lobes have?

Leads to partial or complete blindness Signup and view all the answers

What is the major input point for the somatosensory cortex?

Thalamus Signup and view all the answers

Which region of the cerebrum connects the two hemispheres?

Corpus callosum Signup and view all the answers

Which area is crucial for speech production and understanding grammar?

Broca's area Signup and view all the answers

What may occur if the parietal lobes are damaged?

Loss of ability to feel touch and locate objects Signup and view all the answers

Which lobe is involved in complex visual processing?

Parietal lobe Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the association areas in the cortex?

Integration of complex mental processes Signup and view all the answers

What might Broca's aphasia result in?

Challenges in forming grammatical sentences Signup and view all the answers

How do the primary motors and sensory cortices relate spatially in the brain?

They are adjacent and process corresponding body parts Signup and view all the answers

What is the first stage in the firing of a neuron after it is stimulated by another neuron?

Depolarisation Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a neuron during hyperpolarisation?

It becomes less likely to fire Signup and view all the answers

During which phase is the action potential triggered in a neuron?

-50 mV Signup and view all the answers

What primarily causes the depolarisation of a neuron during the action potential?

Influx of Na+ ions Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the synaptic cleft in neuron communication?

To be the site where neurotransmitters are released Signup and view all the answers

What effect do graded potentials have on the neuron?

They allow the neuron to integrate signals from multiple sources Signup and view all the answers

What does the overshoot of the action potential refer to?

Exceeding +40 mV Signup and view all the answers

Which type of ion is primarily responsible for repolarising the neuron after an action potential?

Potassium ions (K+) Signup and view all the answers

What primarily occurs at the terminal buttons of an axon?

Release of neurotransmitters Signup and view all the answers

What role do neurotransmitter receptors play in neuron function?

They bind neurotransmitters to initiate a response Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the resting state of a neuron?

The neuron is unable to fire Signup and view all the answers

Which ion's influx initiates the process of depolarisation?

Sodium (Na+) Signup and view all the answers

What defines the synapse in neuron communication?

The space between terminal buttons and dendrites Signup and view all the answers

In which state is the neuron considered to have energy stored for potential use?

Resting state Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of damage to Wernicke’s area on language comprehension?

It causes difficulty understanding the meaning of words and sentences. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for processing auditory information?

Temporal lobes Signup and view all the answers

What is neuroplasticity?

The brain's ability to change in response to experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the primary auditory cortex?

It breaks sound into meaningful units. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common outcome for individuals with right temporal lobe damage?

Difficulty recognizing nonverbal stimuli such as songs. Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes the generation or repair of neurons in the central nervous system?

Neurogenesis Signup and view all the answers

How does neuroplasticity relate to educational psychology?

It suggests that low-threat environments can enhance learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of neuroplasticity for aging populations?

Neuroplasticity helps generate a more positive view towards aging. Signup and view all the answers

Which phenomenon occurs when sensory impairment leads to brain reorganization?

Plasticity Signup and view all the answers

What is Wernicke’s aphasia characterized by?

Fluently spoken but nonsensical speech. Signup and view all the answers

How do neurons communicate across the synapse?

By neurotransmitters. Signup and view all the answers

An increase in the resting potential of a neuron is referred to as:

Hyperpolarization. Signup and view all the answers

What influences the variability of psychological attributes among individuals?

The interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Signup and view all the answers

What happens when enough depolarizing graded potentials reach a neuron's threshold?

The neuron fires an action potential. Signup and view all the answers

What role do neurotransmitters play in neural communication?

They are chemical messages that excite or inhibit other neurons. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the autonomic nervous system?

It manages involuntary bodily functions like heartbeat and digestion. Signup and view all the answers

Which structure of the central nervous system is primarily responsible for regulating vital life functions such as heartbeat and respiration?

Medulla oblongata Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the cerebellum?

It coordinates smooth movements and learning. Signup and view all the answers

What is an essential role of the hypothalamus?

It regulates behaviors related to survival. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the thalamus in the central nervous system?

It processes and relays sensory information. Signup and view all the answers

How does the central nervous system (CNS) differ from the peripheral nervous system (PNS)?

CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, while PNS connects the CNS to the body. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the cerebral cortex allows for complex cognitive tasks?

The development of association areas for perception and ideas. Signup and view all the answers

What does heritability refer to in behavioral genetics?

The proportion of variability in a trait that can be attributed to genetic variance. Signup and view all the answers

What describes the main role of neuroplasticity?

It enables the brain to adapt and reorganize itself based on experiences. Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the learning and memory processes?

Acetylcholine Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the pleasure and reward system of the brain?

Dopamine Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the amygdala in the brain?

Emotional response and fear processing Signup and view all the answers

In which way do genetics and environment interact in psychological functioning?

Genetics provide a blueprint that environment shapes and modifies. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the corpus callosum?

Connecting the two cerebral hemispheres Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the somatic nervous system within the peripheral nervous system?

It includes sensory and motor neurons for voluntary actions. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the corpus callosum serve in the brain?

It connects the two cerebral hemispheres. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of endorphins in the brain?

To elevate mood and reduce pain Signup and view all the answers

Dizygotic twins share approximately how much of their genetic makeup?

50% Signup and view all the answers

What is one potential outcome of neurogenesis?

Repair and replacement of damaged neurons. Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the nervous system is primarily responsible for involuntary bodily functions?

Autonomic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What are graded potentials in neural functioning?

Spreading voltage changes that occur upon neuron's signal reception. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the basal ganglia?

Controlling movement and facilitating minimal conscious judgments Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'degree of relatedness' refer to?

The likelihood two individuals share specific genetic traits. Signup and view all the answers

Which hormones are produced by the female gonads?

Estrogens Signup and view all the answers

What is the principal function of the frontal lobes?

Coordination of movement and complex cognitive functions Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hippocampus play in the brain?

Involved in memory acquisition and consolidation Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is primarily associated with higher-level cognitive processes?

Cerebral cortex Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the medulla oblongata?

Controlling physiological functions such as heartbeat and respiration Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in movement and conscious arousal?

Midbrain Signup and view all the answers

What type of twins are identical in genetic makeup?

Monozygotic twins Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the myelin sheath?

Insulating the axon and speeding up neural transmission Signup and view all the answers

Which nervous system component is responsible for conserving energy resources?

Parasympathetic nervous system Signup and view all the answers

What neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the regulation of mood and arousal?

Serotonin Signup and view all the answers

What is neurogenesis?

The creation or repair of neurons in the brain Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is known as the 'master gland' of the endocrine system?

Pituitary gland Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes reflexes in behavioral responses?

Elicited automatically by environmental stimuli Signup and view all the answers

What does the somatosensory cortex primarily process?

Sensory information from the body Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the brain's ability to change itself in response to experiences?

Neuroplasticity Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is involved in the processing and relay of sensory information?

Thalamus Signup and view all the answers

What type of neurons transmit commands from the brain to muscles?

Motor neurons Signup and view all the answers

What do terminal buttons do in a neuron?

Transmit signals to adjacent cells Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Nervous System Overview

Comprised of central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nervous system (PNS).
Underlies all psychological activity with an estimated 10-120 billion neurons in the brain.
Average neuron communicates with approximately 1,000 other neurons.

Neuron Types

Sensory Neurons (Afferent): Convey sensory information from receptors to the CNS.
Interneurons: Typically connect sensory and motor neurons; most abundant in the brain and spinal cord.
Motor Neurons (Efferent): Transmit commands from CNS to muscles and glands for voluntary and involuntary actions.

Neuron Anatomy

Dendrites: Receive incoming signals from other neurons.
Cell Body: Contains nucleus, processes input received via dendrites.
Axon: Transmits signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Myelin Sheath: Insulates the axon to speed up signal transmission; appears as white matter in the brain.
Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath that facilitate rapid signal conduction.

Neural Firing Process

Resting Potential: Neuron at -70mV, polarized state maintained by ion concentrations.
Graded Potentials: Changes in membrane potential due to synaptic input, allowing integration of signals.
Action Potential: Rapid depolarization occurs if a threshold of -50mV is reached; sodium ions rush in, followed by potassium ions exiting to restore potential.

Synaptic Transmission

Presynaptic Neuron: Sends the impulse.
Postsynaptic Neuron: Receives the impulse.
Neurotransmitters released from terminal buttons into the synaptic cleft facilitate communication by binding to receptors on receiving neurons.
Excitatory neurotransmitters increase likelihood of action potential, while inhibitory neurotransmitters decrease it.

Neurotransmitters and Their Functions

Glutamate: Major excitatory neurotransmitter; vital for learning and memory.
GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid): Main inhibitory neurotransmitter; regulates anxiety and prevents seizures.
Dopamine: Influences motivation and reward; dysregulation linked to Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia.
Serotonin: Involved in mood regulation; undersupply linked to depression.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Key in muscle movement and memory; associated with Alzheimer's when levels are low.
Endorphins: Natural pain relievers; enhance mood, learning, and decrease appetite.
Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Facilitate response to stress and arousal; impact learning and memory.

Endocrine System

Comprises glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream for broad intercellular communication.
Pituitary Gland: Known as the master gland; regulates other glands.
Adrenal Glands: Secrete adrenaline in response to stress.
Thyroid Gland: Regulates metabolism and growth.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Connects CNS to peripheral body parts; divided into somatic and autonomic systems.
Somatic Nervous System: Controls voluntary movements and relays sensory information.
Autonomic Nervous System: Manages involuntary processes; includes sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (rest and digest) divisions.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord; responsible for processing information and transmitting signals.
Spinal Cord: Mediates reflex actions and transmits signals between brain and body.
Hindbrain Structures: Control vital functions (e.g., respiration, heart rate) and facilitate movement/balance.
Cerebellum: Coordinates smooth, balanced movements.

Evolution of the Nervous System

Early vertebrate ancestors exhibited simple reflex functions.
Evolution led to the development of a more complex human brain capable of advanced cognitive functions.
The cerebrum constitutes 82% of the brain's mass, reflecting complex thought processing.

Key Concepts in Neural Function

Localisation of Function: Specific brain regions specialize in different functions but work collectively for actions and thoughts.
Reflex Arcs: Quick responses bypassing the brain for rapid reaction to stimuli, often involving simple two-neuron pathways for efficiency.### Sensory and Cognitive Processes
Learning to associate one stimulus with another involves complex sensory and cognitive processes.

Reticular Formation

A network of neurons from the medulla to the midbrain, essential for maintaining consciousness and regulating arousal levels.
Integrates information from various neural pathways, enhancing attention to simultaneous activity in the brain.
Damage can cause sleep disturbances and lead to coma.

Midbrain

Tectum

Involves structures for vision and hearing, helping orientation to stimuli.
Blindsight phenomenon occurs with damage to visual processing circuits but intact tectum.

Tegmentum

Contains parts of the reticular formation and functions related to movement.
Houses the substantia nigra, which deteriorates in Parkinson's disease, affecting approach-avoidance learning.

Forebrain

Encompasses complex sensory, emotional, cognitive, and behavioral processes.

Hypothalamus

Located in front of the midbrain, connecting the nervous system to the endocrine system.
Governs crucial behaviors like eating, sleeping, and emotional responses, and regulates homeostasis.

Thalamus

Acts as a sensory information switchboard, processing and routing signals from sensory systems to higher brain centers.
Filters and enhances the importance of sensory messages to guide attention.

Subcortical Structures

Limbic System

Comprises structures crucial for emotion, motivation, learning, and memory.

Septal Area

Linked to pleasure, emotional learning, and responses to stress.

Amygdala

Involved in emotional significance, fear responses, and recognition of fearful emotions.

Hippocampus

Vital for forming and retrieving new memories, without it, new information cannot be stored.

Basal Ganglia

Located at the base of the forebrain, involved in movement control and automatic responses.
Damage may lead to movement disorders and cognitive impairments.

Cerebral Cortex

A dense layer of interneurons processed in two types: primary and association areas.

Primary Cortex Areas

Involved in processing raw sensory information and initiating movement.

Association Cortex Areas

Engage in complex cognitive processes, enabling object and perception recognition.

Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex

Divided into four lobes: occipital, parietal, frontal, and temporal.

Occipital Lobes

Specialized for vision; damage can lead to blindness.

Parietal Lobes

Process touch, movement, and spatial awareness; damage affects sensory recognition.

Frontal Lobes

Responsible for movement, planning, attention, and personality; damage can impair cognitive functions.

Motor Cortex

Initiates voluntary movements and manages body movement information flow.

Broca's Area

Essential for speech production and understanding grammar; damage may result in Broca's aphasia, impacting speech fluency.

Temporal Lobes

Important for hearing and language; damage can lead to nonverbal deficits or Wernicke's aphasia, characterized by comprehension issues.

Neuroplasticity

Describes the brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt in response to experiences and damage.
Can enhance learning and recovery in individuals with brain injuries.

Neurogenesis

The process of producing new neurons and repairing brain structures, primarily occurring in the hippocampus.

Cognitive Neuropsychology

Aims to understand the connection between brain structure, function, and psychology.

Brain, Gene, and Behavior

Investigates the genetic variability that affects phenotypic traits, like intelligence and personality.
Heritability measures how much of characteristic variability is due to genetic differences.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Composed of neurons connecting the CNS to the body, including two divisions:

Somatic Nervous System

Manages sensory and motor neurons related to voluntary actions.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily functions, subdivided into sympathetic (stress response) and parasympathetic (restoration to baseline).

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord, coordinating body functions and responses.### Nervous System Overview
The nervous system is organized hierarchically, with higher centers regulating lower-level processes.
The spinal cord transmits sensory info to the brain and motor messages to muscles and organs.
Contains reflex actions that operate independently of brain input.

Hindbrain Components

Medulla Oblongata: Controls vital functions like heartbeat, circulation, and respiration; connects the spinal cord and brain.
Cerebellum: Involved in smooth movement coordination, learning, and stimulus discrimination.
Reticular Formation: Maintains consciousness and regulates states of arousal and sleep cycles.

Midbrain Structure

Comprises the Tectum and Tegmentum.
Tectum: Processes visual and auditory stimuli and links negative emotions to escape behaviors.
Tegmentum: Facilitates movement and associates pleasure with rewarding behaviors, involved in part of the reticular formation.

Forebrain Components

Consists of the Hypothalamus, Thalamus, and Cerebrum.
Hypothalamus: Regulates eating, sleeping, sexual activity, and emotional experiences.
Thalamus: Processes sensory info and relays it to higher brain areas.
Cerebrum: Contains subcortical structures (limbic system and basal ganglia) and the cerebral cortex.

Subcortical Structures

Limbic System: Involved in emotions, motivation, learning, and memory (includes amygdala and hippocampus).
Basal Ganglia: Associated with movement, mood, and memory.

Cerebral Cortex Functions

Supports voluntary movement, complex sensory discrimination, and symbolic thinking.
Comprises primary sensory and motor areas and association areas that integrate perceptions and plans.
Connected by the Corpus Callosum, facilitating interhemispheric communication.

Hemispheres and Lobes

Each hemisphere consists of four lobes: Occipital (vision), Parietal (touch, movement perception), Frontal (movement coordination, planning, personality), and Temporal (hearing, language).
Psychological processes can be lateralized, varying by hemisphere.

Neuroplasticity and Neurogenesis

Neuroplasticity indicates continuous brain development in response to experiences.
Neurogenesis refers to the brain's capacity for neuron production and repair.

Genetics vs. Environment in Psychology

Genetics and environment interact complexly in psychological traits.
Behavioral genetics explore heritability of traits, such as intelligence and personality.
Heritability: Proportion of trait variance attributable to genetic differences.

Key Terms

Acetylcholine (ACh): Neurotransmitter for muscle contractions and memory.
Action Potential: Temporary membrane polarization leading to neuron firing.
Adrenaline: Hormone released during emergencies, activates physiological arousal.
Neurotransmitters: Chemicals that transmit signals between neurons.
Cognitive Neuropsychology: Studies the interplay of brain structure and psychological processes.

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Description

This quiz explores the fundamental aspects of neurons, the basic units of the nervous system. Discover how neurons transmit information and differentiate between sensory, motor, and interneurons. Test your understanding of the central and peripheral nervous systems.