40 Studies that Changed Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What are the four primary defense mechanisms discovered by Freud?

Repression, Regression, Projection, Reaction Formation, Sublimation.

What did Seligman and Maier's experiments with dogs illustrate about feelings of control?

They illustrated that when individuals feel their behaviors have no effect on the outcome, they may become helpless and give up.

What were the reactions of rats in Calhoun's crowding experiment?

Aggression

Submissiveness

Sexual deviance

All of the above (correct)

What was the outcome of Smith and Glass's analysis of therapy effectiveness?

The average person receiving therapy was better off than 75% of untreated controls. Signup and view all the answers

What technique did Wolpe use to help patients manage anxiety?

Relaxation training combined with visualization of anxiety-inducing scenes. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Rorschach inkblot test function?

Patients interpret symmetrical ink blots, revealing their psychological characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

What did Murray's picture storytelling method reveal?

It revealed inner conflicts and desires of the patients. Signup and view all the answers

What were the mental effects shown by prisoners and guards in Zimbardo's prison experiment?

Prisoners showed trauma and depression, while guards became cruel and dehumanizing. Signup and view all the answers

What effect did group pressures have in Asch's conformity experiment?

About 75% of participants changed their correct answer to match the group's incorrect answer. Signup and view all the answers

What did the Darley and Latane study suggest about bystander intervention?

The likelihood of helping decreased as the number of bystanders increased. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main finding of Milgram's obedience experiment?

65% of participants continued to shock the subject up to the maximum voltage despite objections. Signup and view all the answers

Freud's defense mechanism that involves forcing an unaccepted desire into the unconscious is called __________.

Repression Signup and view all the answers

Who conducted experiments with split-brain patients?

Sperry and Gazzaniga Signup and view all the answers

What does the study by Rosenzweig, Bennett, and Diamond suggest?

More experience leads to a bigger brain Signup and view all the answers

What do the findings of Bouchard and Lykken's study indicate?

Genetic factors account for most variations in human characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

Who conducted experiments involving a 'Visual Cliff'?

Gibson and Walk Signup and view all the answers

What did Fantz discover through his experiments?

Infants prefer complex forms and human faces. Signup and view all the answers

What is the REM-rebound effect discovered by Dement?

An increase in dream time after deprivation of dreaming. Signup and view all the answers

What did Hobson and McCarley's study reveal about dreams?

Dreams result from the brain making sense of electrochemical transmissions during sleep. Signup and view all the answers

What did Spanos conclude about hypnotic behavior?

Hypnotic behaviors are results of highly-motivated social behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What concept did Pavlov's experiment with dogs introduce?

Classical conditioning Signup and view all the answers

What was Watson and Rayner's finding regarding human behavior?

Human behaviors like fear are learned over time. Signup and view all the answers

What did Skinner find with his experiments on pigeons?

Pigeons developed superstitious behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What did Bandura's studies on children reveal about aggression?

Aggressive behavior can be learned through observation Signup and view all the answers

What is the Pygmalion effect as found by Rosenthal and Jacobson?

Expectations can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies. Signup and view all the answers

What did Gardner's research lead to regarding intelligence?

There are multiple types of intelligence beyond IQ. Signup and view all the answers

What was revealed by Tolman's experiments with rats?

Rats have conceptual maps in their cognitive processes. Signup and view all the answers

What did Loftus discover about memory?

Memories are reconstructed rather than replayed. Signup and view all the answers

What did Harlow's study on rhesus monkeys demonstrate?

Intimate body contact is crucial for attachment. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do infants develop object permanence according to Piaget?

Between 4 to 7 months. Signup and view all the answers

What did Kohlberg find about moral development?

Moral ability develops in predictable stages Signup and view all the answers

What did Langer's study reveal about choice and happiness?

Greater control over decisions leads to increased happiness. Signup and view all the answers

What are the stages of human sexual response discovered by Masters and Johnson?

Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution Signup and view all the answers

What did Ekman and Friesen's study conclude about facial expressions?

Facial expressions are universally associated with specific emotions. Signup and view all the answers

What did Holmes and Rahe develop regarding stressful life events?

The Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS). Signup and view all the answers

What did Festinger and Carlsmith's study demonstrate?

Cognitive dissonance can change attitudes. Signup and view all the answers

What did Rotter measure in his experiments?

Internal and external locus-of-control orientation. Signup and view all the answers

What did Bem's research conclude about gender?

Gender is on a spectrum and includes androgynous individuals. Signup and view all the answers

What link did Friedman and Rosenman's study establish?

A link between behavior patterns and coronary heart disease. Signup and view all the answers

What cultural differences did Triandis and Bontempo identify?

Individualistic versus collectivist cultures. Signup and view all the answers

What did Rosenhan's study show about mental health diagnosis?

Training professionals cannot always distinguish normal from mentally ill behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

One Brain or Two?

Sperry and Gazzaniga studied split-brain patients to understand brain hemispheres' functions.
Each hemisphere specializes in different tasks: left for language and right for spatial relations.
Severing the corpus callosum allowed independent functioning, revealing the brain's dual-task capability.

More Experience = Bigger Brain

Rosenzweig, Bennett, and Diamond examined how rat environments affected brain complexity.
Rats in enriched environments exhibited a more complex brain structure than isolated rats.
Demonstrated that experience leads to physical changes in brain structure.

Are You a "Natural"?

Bouchard and Lykken studied monozygotic twins in different environments to analyze traits.
Found that genetic factors account for variations in characteristics more than environmental influences.
Showed that genetics significantly impact human traits regardless of upbringing.

Watch Out for the Visual Cliff!

Gibson and Walk tested depth perception using a visual cliff apparatus with infants.
Found depth perception develops as a survival mechanism, indicating it is innate.
Results continue to influence contemporary research on visual perception.

Take a Long Look

Fantz observed infant preferences in visual stimuli to assess form perception.
Infants preferred complex forms and human faces, indicating innate visual discrimination abilities.
Contributed to understanding developmental psychology regarding visual preferences in infants.

To Sleep, No Doubt to Dream

Dement explored effects of dream deprivation and discovered REM-rebound effect.
When dreaming is suppressed, there's an increased tendency to dream once sleep resumes.
Highlighted the importance of REM sleep in psychological well-being.

Unromancing the Dream

Hobson and McCarley theorized that dreams arise from the brain's attempts to interpret electrical activity during sleep.
Challenged previous beliefs that dreams were responses to external stimuli or unconscious desires.
Advanced understanding of sleep and dream processes in psychology.

Acting as if You are Hypnotized

Spanos concluded that hypnotic behaviors are driven by social motivation, not altered consciousness.
Hypnotism functions through social pressures rather than a distinct mental state.
Influence on the understanding of hypnosis and its practical applications in psychotherapy.

It's Not Just About Salivating Dogs!

Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs established the concept of conditional reflexes.
Introduced the idea that learned associations can modify behavior through experience.
Laid foundational principles for behavioral psychology in understanding human behaviors.

Little Emotional Albert

Watson and Rayner demonstrated that emotions like fear can be learned through conditioning.
Their experiment with "Little Albert" showed that conditioned responses can develop from stimuli.
Shifted psychological perspectives from unconscious processes to learned behavior.

Knock Wood!

Skinner explored superstitious behaviors in pigeons conditioned by variable rewards.
Demonstrated the relationship between behavior and perceived outcomes, illustrating operant conditioning principles.
Provided insight into irrational behaviors linked to reward contingencies.

See Aggression... Do Aggression!

Bandura's Bobo doll experiment showed that children learn aggression through observation.
Children exposed to aggressive models were more likely to act aggressively themselves, highlighting social learning theory.
The study emphasized that behavior can be learned without direct reinforcement through models.

What You Expect is What You Get

Rosenthal and Jacobson demonstrated the Pygmalion effect, where teachers' expectations influenced student performance.
Students labeled as "smart" showed greater IQ gains, showcasing self-fulfilling prophecies in educational settings.
The study revealed the impact of psychological expectations on educational outcomes.

Just How Are You Intelligent?

Gardner identified multiple intelligences, which include linguistic, musical, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily kinesthetic, intrapersonal, and interpersonal.
Challenged traditional IQ testing, suggesting intelligence comprises various forms, not just academic abilities.
Influenced educational practices by recognizing diverse talents beyond conventional measures.

Maps in Your Mind

Tolman studied rats navigating mazes, revealing cognitive maps guiding behavior rather than simple stimulus-response actions.
Findings disputed the notion that learning is solely based on rewards, emphasizing internal mental processes.
Advanced understanding of learning and cognition in animals and humans.

Thanks for the Memories!

Loftus researched memory reconstruction, discovering that questioning can alter recall accuracy.
Revealed memory is not a direct playback of events but influenced by new information and context.
Positioned memory as a complex process involving reconstruction rather than simple retrieval.

Discovering Love

Harlow's experiments with infant monkeys emphasized the importance of contact comfort over feeding in forming attachments.
Results showed preferences for soft, nurturing surrogates over wire mothers that provided nourishment.
Challenged behaviorist views, highlighting the role of emotional bonds in development.

Out of Sight, But Not Out of Mind

Piaget studied object permanence in infants, concluding it develops in stages during infancy.
Infants’ inability to grasp object permanence reflects cognitive maturation processes as they grow.
Established foundational theories on cognitive development stages in children.

How Moral Are You?

Kohlberg's interviews revealed moral reasoning develops through identifiable stages as children age.
Disproved earlier beliefs attributing morality solely to upbringing, indicating universal developmental patterns.
Analyzed moral development in a structured way, contributing to developmental psychology.

In Control and Glad of It!

Langer's study in nursing homes showed residents' control over their lives correlated with happiness.
Highlighted the psychological benefits of autonomy and decision-making on well-being and mental health.
Demonstrated the importance of perceived control in elderly care and psychology.

A Sexual Motivation

Masters and Johnson documented the human sexual response cycle: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.
Discovered biological and psychological factors in sexual response, debunking several myths about sexuality.
Influenced sexual education by providing empirical research on human sexual behavior.

Can See It All Over Your Face!

Ekman and Friesen found facial expressions universally correspond to specific emotions, suggesting innate emotional responses.
Conducted studies across cultures to support the universality of emotion expression.
Transformed theories in emotional psychology, bridging biology and sociology in emotional assessment.

Life, Change, and Stress

Holmes and Rahe developed the Social Readjustment Rating Scale assessing stress from various life events.
Identified 43 life changes and their stress levels, contributing valuable tools for researching stress-related illnesses.
Influenced the field of health psychology by exploring stress's impact on physical health.

Thoughts Out of Tune

Festinger and Carlsmith's study on cognitive dissonance showed that monetary incentives for lying affected participants' attitudes towards the task.
Those incentivized with a smaller sum reported more satisfaction than those given a larger incentive.
Validated cognitive dissonance theory, illustrating psychological discomfort as a driver of attitude change.

Are You the Master of Your Fate?

Rotter's research through the I-E scale identified personality traits related to internal and external locus of control.
Found that individuals with an internal locus exhibited higher motivation and resilience compared to those with an external locus.
Contributed significantly to personality psychology and understanding of motivational factors in behavior.

Masculine Or Feminine...Or Both?

Bem's Sex-Role Inventory recognized androgyny in gender identity and challenged rigid categorizations of masculinity and femininity.
Promoted the understanding of gender as a spectrum rather than a binary classification system in psychology.
Fostered a broader acceptance of diverse gender expressions in society.

Racing Against Your Heart

Friedman and Rosenman correlated behavior patterns with coronary heart disease incidence.
Identified Type A and Type B personalities, highlighting Type A traits' association with stress-related health issues.
Established connections between psychological factors and physical health, informing future health psychology studies.

The One, The Many

Triandis and Bontempo's cultural study differentiated between individualistic (U.S.) and collectivist (Japan, Puerto Rico) cultures.
Individualistic cultures prioritize personal goals, while collectivist cultures emphasize group needs.
Foundational research for cross-cultural psychology, establishing significant cultural differences in behavior and perspectives.

Who's Crazy Here, Anyway?

Rosenhan's covert study questioned psychiatric diagnoses by having healthy individuals feign symptoms to enter hospitals.
Participant behaviors were misinterpreted as mental illness, highlighting flaws in psychiatric assessments.
Influenced mental health care practices and raised awareness about biases in the diagnosis of mental illness.

You're Getting Defensive Again!

Freud identified primary ego defense mechanisms that alter reality to manage anxiety, including repression, regression, projection, reaction formation, and sublimation.
His theories provided insights into personality development and behavioral responses to anxiety.
Established a theoretical framework that deepened the understanding of psychological defenses in mental health.

Learning to Be Depressed

Seligman and Maier demonstrated learned helplessness through experiments with dogs exposed to inescapable shocks.
Found that perceived lack of control leads to behavioral inactivity, reflecting feelings of helplessness.
Introduced key concepts in understanding depression and motivational psychology.

Crowding into the Behavioral Sink

Calhoun's study on overcrowded rats examined the effects of overpopulation on behavior.
Observed increased aggression, social withdrawal, and pathological behaviors in conditions of high density.
Contributed to the fields of environmental psychology and behavioral ecology, emphasizing the influence of environment on behavior.### Rats' Behavioral Responses to Stress
Stress caused by high population density significantly altered natural social and survival behaviors in rats.
Behavioral changes included extreme aggression, extreme submissiveness, sexual deviance, and cannibalism.
Reproductive abnormalities were also observed in the affected rats.

Effectiveness of Psychotherapy

Smith and Glass analyzed 325 studies to evaluate the effectiveness of counseling and psychotherapy using meta-analysis.
Therapy recipients had better outcomes than 75% of untreated controls, indicating significant effectiveness.
Various types of psychotherapy were generally effective, with no single method found superior to others in treating issues.

Relaxation Therapy for Anxiety

Wolpe introduced a new psychotherapy approach involving relaxation training followed by exposure to anxiety-inducing scenes.
This method achieved a 91% success rate, greatly impacting psychological treatments for fears and anxiety.

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Rorschach developed a series of symmetrical inkblot cards for psychological assessment.
Patient responses helped identify personality traits and aid in diagnosis, establishing the inkblot test as an effective tool in psychology.

Thematic Apperception Test

Murray created ambiguous pictures of people in various situations for patients to interpret through storytelling.
This method effectively revealed patients' inner conflicts and unconscious desires.

Zimbardo’s Mock Prison Experiment

Zimbardo simulated a prison environment, investigating psychological effects on participants assigned as "prisoners" and "guards."
Within a day, participants displayed signs of trauma and dehumanization, with guards exhibiting cruel behaviors, raising ethical concerns regarding real prison systems.

Asch's Conformity Experiment

Asch’s study involved a real participant among confederates who provided incorrect answers to simple questions.
Approximately 75% of real participants conformed to the incorrect group answers, highlighting the significant impact of social pressure on conformity.

Bystander Intervention Study

Darley and Latane's experiment investigated how group size impacts the likelihood of helping behavior in emergencies.
Results showed that 100% of individuals speaking to one person helped immediately, compared to 60% in groups of five, suggesting diffusion of responsibility.

Milgram's Obedience Study

Milgram's experiments assessed obedience by instructing participants to administer shocks to a confederate for incorrect answers.
Results revealed that while all participants hesitated at higher voltages, 65% continued to the maximum shock level, illustrating the strong influence of authority on obedience behavior.

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Description

Explore key experiments that transformed psychology, including insights from Sperry and Gazzaniga on split-brain patients. Understand how these studies unveiled the distinct functions of the brain's hemispheres and their implications for psychology as a whole.