Lecture 1 - Cognition

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Questions and Answers

What is the primary assertion of the Total Time Hypothesis regarding learning?

Learning is constant regardless of time commitment.

Practice has a minimal impact on learning outcomes.

The quality of materials affects learning more than time spent.

The amount learned is directly related to the time spent learning. (correct)

Who is credited with the scientific study of learning and memory focusing on a single participant?

John Dewey

Hermann Ebbinghaus (correct)

B.F. Skinner

Ivan Pavlov

What did Ebbinghaus use to measure the rate of learning and forgetting?

Real words with contextual associations

Emotional responses

Visual images

Nonsense syllables (correct)

What is a general conclusion that can be drawn from Ebbinghaus's experiments?

The amount learned is linearly related to the amount of study. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the principle of 'Practice makes perfect' in relation to skills learning?

Consistent practice is critical for the development of skills. Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary focus of the study by Karpicke and Roediger (2008)?

The impact of testing on memory retention. Signup and view all the answers

What is the Testing Effect as concluded by Karpicke and Roediger?

Retrieving answers results in better memory retention than just being presented with them. Signup and view all the answers

What negative impact can occur from erroneous retrieval during training?

It can strengthen the incorrect information unless corrected. Signup and view all the answers

What condition did Group 4 (SNT) follow in the study?

Participants did not study after successful recall. Signup and view all the answers

Which group continued to be tested after successful recall according to the results?

Group 3 (STN) Signup and view all the answers

What may happen if corrective feedback is not provided after errors in recall during training?

Errors may be strengthened in memory. Signup and view all the answers

Which group in the Karpicke & Blunt (2011) experiment showed the best memory retention after one week?

Group that studied and was tested immediately. Signup and view all the answers

What does the spacing effect enhance?

Memory retention over time. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT affect the efficiency of learning according to the content?

The time of day studying occurs. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about retrieval practice is true based on the research?

It promotes deeper learning and improves retention. Signup and view all the answers

What may motivation to learn influence according to the content?

Both automatic and strategic learning methods. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key characteristic of effective testing methods mentioned in the content?

Testing should occur immediately after presentation. Signup and view all the answers

Which group in the Karpicke & Blunt experiment did NOT include a testing component?

Group that studied the passage once. Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when simple repetition is used without organizing the material?

Memory and attention selectively register information considered important. Signup and view all the answers

What is a drawback of distributed practice?

It requires longer study schedules over time. Signup and view all the answers

What did Melton's 1970 experiment demonstrate about spaced learning?

Benefits to memory can occur with varied lag times. Signup and view all the answers

What did the study by Baddeley and Longman (1978) mainly assess?

Different training schedules for learning typing skills. Signup and view all the answers

What was a surprising finding from Kornell and Bjork's 2008 study regarding spaced learning?

Participants believed massed learning was more effective despite their performance. Signup and view all the answers

What does the testing effect emphasize about learning?

Testing helps reinforce knowledge and improves memory retention. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does spaced presentation have according to Kornell and Bjork (2008)?

It aids in better identification of new paintings. Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT associated with distributed practice?

Increased forgetting over time. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary effect of curiosity during learning according to the content?

It enhances memory for both the item of curiosity and incidental stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

Which internal factor is noted to have a major impact on successful encoding?

Curiosity Signup and view all the answers

Which brain region is critically involved in the changes associated with curiosity and memory encoding?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What type of memory improvement is observed when curiosity is triggered?

Better encoding of new and incidental information. Signup and view all the answers

What other factor, besides curiosity, has been identified to influence memory encoding?

External incentives like rewards Signup and view all the answers

What common outcome is associated with varying states of curiosity and other motivational factors?

Changes in specific brain regions. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the relationship between curiosity and incidental stimuli?

Curiosity enhances encoding of incidental stimuli as well. Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion can be drawn regarding curiosity from the provided content?

Curiosity creates a state that favors information encoding. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Retrieval Practice

Retrieval practice combined with feedback improved memory for facts and inferential questions from the text.
Erroneous retrieval can be strengthened in memory unless corrective feedback is provided.

Testing Promotes Deeper Learning

Testing promotes superior memory for facts and inferential questions from the text.

Expanding Retrieval Method

Spaced presentation enhances memory.
The sooner an item is tested after presentation, the more likely it will be recalled.

Motivation

Motivation to learn improves memory, even when time spent studying or strategies used are controlled.
People use deeper and more elaborate memorization strategies for high value items.

Curiosity

Curiosity improves memory for both the item triggering the curiosity and other incidentally presented stimuli.

Factors that Facilitate Learning

The Total Time Hypothesis: Learning is a function of the time spent learning.
Practice & Repetition: Practice makes perfect.
Distributed Practice: Spacing out learning trials across a period of time improves learning rates and reduces forgetting.
Testing Effect: Successfully retrieving information strengthens memory better than passive presentation.
Motivation: Internal (curiosity) and external (rewards) motivation improve memory by enhancing the encoding process.

Hermann Ebbinghaus

Studied the rate of learning and forgetting using himself as the sole participant.
Used nonsense syllables (consonant-vowel-consonant combinations) to avoid associations with real words.

Distributed Practice: Experimental Evidence

Melton (1970): Spaced learning of word stimuli leads to better recall.
Baddeley and Longman (1978): Spaced training sessions promote faster learning of typing skills.
Kornell and Bjork (2008): Spaced learning of images led to better identification of paintings by the same artist.

The Testing Effect/Generation Effect

Karpicke and Roediger (2008): The presence of tests had a major effect on what was remembered after a week.

The Testing Effect - Feedback

Butler and Roediger (2008): Retrieving information, rather than simply being presented with it, leads to greater retention.

Curiosity: Experiment

Gruber et al. (2014): Curiosity improved memory for both the information being learned and other incidental material.

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