19th Century Treaties and Japanese Reforms

The term 'sakoku' (鎖国, closed country) was coined in 1801 by Shizuku Tadao, not as a pre-existing policy, but from his translation of Engelbert Kaempfer’s “Seclusion Essay”.

The Japanese term 'teikoku' (帝国) was introduced to translate the English word 'Empire' and its equivalents in other European languages.

The term 'kōkoku' (皇国, imperial land) emerged in the mid 18th century, gaining prominence in the writings of Kamo no Mabuchi.

The Laxman Mission was undertaken in 1792, aiming to establish trade relations with Japan. However, Laxman returned to Russia without a mandate to negotiate, leaving no lasting impact on Japan’s seclusion policies.

European observers perceived Japan as an “Empire” similar to China, Russia, and England. They commonly referred to the Shogun in Edo as the “Emperor,” while the Emperor in Kyoto was seen as a spiritual figure comparable to the Pope.

When Russian ambassador Rezanow arrived in Nagasaki in 1804, he sought trade with Japan. However, Japan asserted its policy of limited trade with only the Dutch and Chinese in Nagasaki as a long-standing and unalterable policy.

The Japanese term 'teikoku' (帝国) was used to represent the Japanese empire, much like the terms 'Empire' in European languages.

A 1825 document written by Aizawa Seishisai, advocating for strong policies to maintain Japan's isolation and cultural purity. It is a response to the increasing presence of foreign ships, mainly whalers.

This shogunate order, issued in 1825, mandated immediate and decisive action against foreign ships approaching the Japanese coast, even opening fire if necessary.

The British ship Phaeton in 1808, entered Nagasaki harbor against Japanese wishes, motivated by the need to resupply during the Napoleonic wars. It was not an attempt to open up Japan for trade.

American ship Morrison tried to force its way into Edo Bay in 1837. This rare incident, even though it failed, shows the Shogunate's strong will to enforce isolation.

A Russian envoy, Rezanow, was refused entry to Japan in 1804, leading to a raid by his crew on a Japanese outpost on Sakhalin Island.

The practice of whaling led to increased interaction between whalers and Japan in the 1820s. They often landed on the coast, leading to concerns about their influence on Japanese culture.

Shiba Kokan, a Japanese artist, criticized Japan's isolationist policy, arguing that the refusal to interact with foreigners was a disgrace and made Japan look barbaric.

Watanabe Kazan, another Japanese artist, argued against the strict isolationist stance of the Shogunate by highlighting the plight of ships facing distress at sea.

In Sorai's philosophy, a concept referring to the authority held by ancient sages, who used rituals and music to influence people's behavior and promote social harmony.

The ruling entity or authority of a nation, often embodied in a government or sovereign, with the power to enforce laws and govern its people.

Aizawa Seishisai's concept of the essential nature of a nation, encompassing its culture, institutions, and values, emphasizing national unity and tradition.

The 'inducing influence' exerted by rituals and music on individuals, shaping their behavior and promoting social harmony.

The metaphorical 'body' of a state, composed of its citizens, whose ultimate head or ruler represents authority and power.

The 'provisional' teaching or appearance in Buddhism, referring to temporary or relative truths that guide practitioners towards enlightenment.

The weight of authority or power attributed to a ruler or institution, influencing decision-making and actions.

A counterweight used for measuring on a balance scale, symbolizing the balanced power and authority in a society.

The reformist leader, Yoshinobu, appointed as guardian of Shogun, while Yoshinaga, a previous councilor, was appointed Senior Councilor. This marked a period of moderation and loosening of the strict sankin kotai system.

Chōshū emerges as the leading domain in promoting radical shishi and rōnin activities. They openly supported the Emperor's authority and challenged the Shogunate.

The court issued an order to expel foreigners, reflecting an increasing anti-foreign sentiment. Chōshū fired on foreign ships, which escalated tensions.

After a series of conflicts, loyalists regained control of Chōshū, aided by a new militia (kiheitai) equipped with modern weapons.

Satsuma, a powerful domain with a large samurai population, was initially against Chōshū but later changed its stance due to internal political shifts and the influence of figures like Saigō Takamori and Ōkubo Toshimichi.

Sakamoto Ryōma from Tosa domain brokered a secret alliance between Satsuma and Chōshū, leading to Satsuma's neutrality in the second punitive expedition against Chōshū. This ultimately resulted in the shogunate's humiliating defeat.

The opening of ports led to economic turmoil with sharp inflation and disruptions due to foreign trade, sparking discontent and unrest.

A wave of unrest and uprisings swept across the country, demonstrating growing popular dissatisfaction with the existing regime, though not necessarily directly against foreigners.

A political and social ideology that advocated for the restoration of imperial authority and the expulsion of foreign influences from Japan. It emerged as a response to the perceived threat posed by Western powers and the shogunate's concessions to them.

A phrase meaning "Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians." It served as a rallying cry for the Sonnō jōi movement and emphasized the need to restore imperial authority and expel foreign influence.

A group of politically active samurai who played a significant role in the Sonnō jōi movement and sought to overthrow the shogunate and restore power to the emperor.

The assassination of Ii Naosuke at Sakurada-mon Gate in 1860. Ii Naosuke, a hardliner, was responsible for signing the Harris Treaty and suppressing opposition to the shogunate.

A political ideology that aimed to unify the imperial court and the shogunate (military government). It sought to maintain a balance between imperial authority and the practical power of the shogunate.

A political strategy aimed at preventing conflict between the court and the shogunate by seeking to solidify relations between them through political means like arranged marriages.

The marriage of Shogun Iemochi to the emperor's younger sister Kazunomiya in 1862. This move was seen as a step toward the implementation of Kõbu Gattai, or 'Unity Between Court and Shogunate,'.

A political move to bolster their own influence, by appropriating the slogan of Kōbu gattai as a means to appeal to those seeking unity between the court and the shogunate.

A series of unequal treaties imposed on China by Western powers in the 19th century, often following military defeats, granting trade advantages and territorial concessions to the victors.

The first Opium War, fought between Great Britain and Qing Dynasty China from 1839 to 1842, was initiated due to British attempts to force the trade of opium into China and the Qing Dynasty’s resistance. This resulted in the Treaty of Nanking, which furthered the unequal treaties imposed on China.

A treaty signed in 1842 between Great Britain and China marking the end of the First Opium War. This treaty forced the Qing Dynasty to cede Hong Kong to Britain, open several ports to British trade, grant extraterritoriality to British citizens, and pay a large sum in damages. It signifies a turning point in Chinese history.

The right of foreigners to be tried under their own laws rather than the laws of the host country. This was one of the concessions granted to the British in the Treaty of Nanking and a hallmark of unequal treaties.

A clause in treaties that grants the same rights and privileges to the signatory countries. It was included in the Treaty of Nanking, granting Britain special advantages within China.

News of the British victory over China in the Opium War had a profound impact on Japan's perception of its own position in the world. The threat of Western powers and the potential for invasion prompted Japan to undertake significant reforms in its defense and national governance.

A series of reforms undertaken in Japan in the 1840s in response to the threat posed by the Western powers rising influence in East Asia. These included strengthening national defense, reorganizing the capital's defenses, and asserting the Shogunate's control over key regions.

The increasing presence of American whaling ships in Japanese waters and the American interest in acquiring coaling stations led to the opening of Japan to US influence. This period culminated in Commodore Perry's arrival in 1853.