History of Japan and Foreign Relations (1808-1847)
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Questions and Answers

The Phaeton entered Nagasaki harbor in 1808 as part of a policy to open Japan.

False (B)

Rezanow took personal offense when he was accepted by the Japanese.

False (B)

The increase in whaling off the coast of Japan in 1820s was due to the depleted hunting grounds in the Atlantic.

True (A)

The Expulsion Edict of 1825 ordered that foreign ships be given provisions.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aizawa Seishisai was unconcerned about the Christian symbols carried by the British whalers in Mito.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Morrison was fired upon when it attempted to enter Edo Bay in 1847.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Shiba Kōkan believed that Rezanow's behavior violated Japanese etiquette.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Watanabe Kazan argued that Japan's policy was harming other nations by hindering navigation of distressed vessels.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Treaty of Nanking in 1842 resulted in Britain gaining full trade access to all Chinese ports.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Treaty of Nanking mandated high tariffs on traded goods in China.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Treaty of Nanking granted legal protection to Chinese merchants in Britain.

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The Treaty of Nanking included a 'most favored nation' clause.

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The Treaty of Nanking resulted in Japan ceding Hong Kong to Britain as a colony and naval base.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

China was required to pay 21 million silver dollars in damages to Britain after the Opium Wars, according to the Treaty of Nanking.

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Mizuno Tadakuni implemented reforms that included the construction of new harbors in Shimoda, Haneda, and Niigata.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Aizawa Seishisai, the spirit-like processes of nature are referred to as Buddhism.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Commodore Perry was not concerned with England establishing a presence in Japan.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aizawa Seishisai believed that the teachings of the Heavenly Ancestor elucidated loyalty and filial devotion.

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The 'Classic of Changes' states that the seasons unfold in proper order because of the spirit-like processes of nature which are called ‘shendao’.

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Ninigi received the Three Imperial Regalia from his father, the Sun God.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Aizawa Seishisai, the Mirror is worshipped as the embodiment of Ninigi.

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The text suggests that the Emperor saw his reflection in the mirror as a sign of his direct lineage from the Sun God.

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Aizawa Seishisai quotes the 'Ijing' when he mentions ‘communion between men and gods inevitably occurs’ during ritual time

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The text states that the American political system is based on a monarchial structure.

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Zhu Xi interprets 親民 as a phrase that means caring for the people.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Nakamura Masanao believed that merely reforming the political structure would change the people's character.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Meiji Restoration is characterized by a significant political and social overhaul in Japan.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Samuel Smiles related the concept of civilization exclusively to political improvements.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Nakamura Masanao translated John Stuart Mill's On Liberty into Japanese.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ernest Satow believed that the classification of events in 1868 as a Restoration or Revolution was of great importance.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Zhu Xi's commentary on the Great Learning was taught to every student studying the Neo-Confucian curriculum.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Nakamura Masanao's views on character change were based solely on education reform.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The goal of restructuring official ranks and offices was to achieve a complete regeneration focused on the original foundation established by Emperor Jimmu.

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The term 'Meiji Restoration' is synonymous with the concept of fundamental government decline.

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The authors of the Seitaisho were influenced by Yokoi Shōnan, who advocated for the kōgi yoron faction.

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The phrase 'Our Empire is an old state, its government is what is new' reflects the perspective of viewing conditions in the Meiji era.

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In the commentary referring to the Classic of Poetry, the government is equated to the concept of the Confucian 'mandate'.

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Ishin, as a term, represents an entirely different concept from fundamental government reform.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Classic of Poetry states that the mandate of the Zhou dynasty is unchanged and old.

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The phrase 'That is what is new' in the context of 'ishin' links to the idea of a heavenly mandate.

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The Convention of Kanagawa allowed American citizens to live openly outside of the seven-mile radius of Shimoda.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Treaty ports were opened in Yokohama, Nagasaki, Niigata, and eventually Kobe as a result of the Harris Treaty.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Convention of Kanagawa stated that American citizens at Shimoda would not be subject to the same confinement as Dutch and Chinese citizens were in Nagasaki.

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Hotta Masayoshi was a leader of the anti-foreign movement, rejecting any treaties with foreigners.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Harris Treaty was signed in 1854 by Perry after he returned to Japan with his fleet of battleships.

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The convention signed in 1854 was known as the “Convention of Peace and Amity”.

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Study Notes

The Foreign Threat

  • In 1771, Hungarian Benyowsky escaped a Russian penal colony in Kamchatka.
  • He sailed to Japanese ports, seeking provisions.
  • He wrote letters in German to Dutch officials in Nagasaki, claiming to be a captain in the Austrian navy.
  • He warned of an impending Russian attack from the North.
  • These claims were false, but they fueled rumors of a potential Russian attack.
  • Expeditions were sent to Ezo (present-day Hokkaido) and Kurile Islands to assess the situation in the northern "borderlands."

Japan as a Secluded Country in the Eighteenth Century

  • Until the 18th century, the Dutch East India Company dominated East Asian waters, satisfied with trading arrangements with Japan.
  • The British trading interest in Japan grew, particularly in the mid-19th century, due to tea and porcelain trade.
  • Japan's "seclusion" was never seriously challenged.
  • Policies of the 1630s, banning Spanish and Portuguese trade, Christianity, and Japanese overseas travel, established a period for seclusion.
  • The term "closed country" (sakoku 鎖国) was not coined until 1801.

"Foreign Relations" of the Tokugawa State

  • Ryukyu Islands were conquered by Satsuma in 1609.
  • Ryukyu remained tributary to China.
  • Japanese officials concealed their contacts with Chinese contacts through contact with Tokara.
  • Important conduit for trade and information.
  • Japan's trade with Korea continued, despite Hideyoshi's invasion, primarily via Tsushima domain (Sō) and a trading post in Pusan.
  • Japan's relations with Korea were less confrontational than with China.
  • Trade with Ezo (present-day Hokkaido) via Matsumae domain increased.
  • Herring fishery became more important for fertilizer production.

"Foreign Relations" of the Tokugawa State

  • Trade continued, despite travel restrictions.
  • Gold and silver mines depleted in the early 1700s, causing economic issues.
  • Economic growth was primarily based on agricultural production and regional commerce.
  • Japan remained largely detached from East Asian continent affairs.
  • State-building efforts slowed.
  • Tokugawa declined Ming requests for military assistance against Manchu in 1630s.
  • Their complicated system of control was possible because Japan did not need a national army.
  • Distinctive "non-modern" character of frontiers, sometimes defined ambiguously by different states.

Hayashi Shihei

  • Published "Military Talks for a Maritime Nation" in 1791.
  • Discussed maritime nations and their defense strategies.
  • Questioned the lack of coastal defenses in Edo, and elsewhere, beyond Nagasaki.
  • Arrested for commentary on foreign policy.
  • Died in house arrest.

The Laxman Mission (1792-1793)

  • The Russian envoy Laxman arrived in Nemuro (Hokkaido) to negotiate trade and return Japanese castaways.
  • The shogunate responded with claims of ancestral laws forbidding foreign intercourse.
  • Laxman was instructed to "understand the matter in terms of etiquette."
  • Negotiations for trade were limited to Nagasaki.
  • Laxman returned to Russia, feeling that he lacked a sufficient mandate to negotiate with Japan.

"Policy of Seclusion"

  • The policy of seclusion had not been formally articulated before Laxman's visit.
  • Russia, while reaching the Pacific, was not pushing for trade or expansion into Japan.
  • The Laxman mission was undertaken by the governor of Siberia, not Catherine the Great.
  • The shogunate might have tolerated a more limited engagement with Russia if Laxman had proceeded to Nagasaki.
  • The term "closed country" (sakoku) was coined only in 1801.

Engelbert Kaempfer

  • Wrote "An Enquiry," discussing whether Japan should maintain trade with foreign nations.
  • Provided insights into Japanese relations with foreign countries during the Edo period.

The Japanese "Empire"

  • Japan was referred to as an "empire" in Europe, similar to China, Russia, and England.
  • The Japanese term teikoku wasn't in Chinese Classics.
  • Introduced into European languages to represent the meaning of "Empire".
  • The shogun, in Edo, was often referred to as the "Emperor" by Europeans.
  • The Japanese Emperor in Kyoto was compared to the Pope.
  • Kōkoku (imperial land) was coined by Kamo no Mabuchi in 1765.

Further Incidents with Foreign Ships

  • The Russian ambassador Rezanow arrived in 1804, asserting Japan's policy of limited trade solely with China and the Netherlands.
  • Rezanow was rejected; some of his crew raided Sakhalin (in 1807).
  • The British ship "Phaeton" forced it way into Nagasaki harbor (in 1808).
  • Whaling ships from the 1820s increasingly appeared off the Japanese coasts.

The Expulsion Edict (Uchiharai-rei) of 1825

  • British whalers were present in Mito (1824).
  • There was increased scrutiny over whaling activities, largely due to the growing presence of whaling vessels in the Pacific, and incidents related to these.
  • Aizawa Seishisai ordered a policy of no tolerance for ships approaching the Japanese coast.
  • Aizawa also documented his ideas in "New Theses."
  • The Exclusion edict was later revoked after the Opium War (1842) in China.

Confucian Critiques of the "Expulsion" Policy

  • Shiba Kōkan criticized the behavior of foreign barbarians as violating etiquette.
  • Watanabe Kazan addressed the issue of the need of foreign ships for provisions and assistance in their travels through diplomatic correspondence with England.
  • Both figures criticized the closed-door policy of the shogunate (bakufu).

Aizawa Seishisai

  • Advisor to Tokugawa Nariaki of Mito
  • Writings merged Confucianism, national learning, and Dutch learning.
  • The "New Theses"(Shinron, 1825) presented a nationalist/pro-imperial perspective that was later used by the imperialists.
  • Believed that upholding the existing political order(shogunate) aligned with loyalty to the emperor.

Aizawa Seishisai on the Kokutai

  • Aizawa's concept of kokutai combined Shinto mythology, Confucian ethics, and Bushido (Way of the Samurai).
  • Amaterasu established loyalty, filial devotion, martial virtues, and nurturing people as central precepts.
  • Advocated the vital importance of the kokutai (national essence/spirit) in wartime.
  • The Peace preservation law (1925) strengthened the link between the emperor and kokutai.
  • These ideas played a role in prewar and wartime emperor-centered nationalism.

Aizawa Seishisai on Christianity

  • Aizawa decisively condemned Christianity's moral and spiritual failings.
  • Believed Christian doctrine incited rebelliousness among commoners.
  • Argued the greater efficacy of Confucianism's tenets.

Aizawa Seishisai on "Inner Strength" of Christians

  • Aizawa admired Giovanni Battista Sidotti, a Jesuit missionary.
  • He regarded Sidotti's strong dedication to his religious doctrine and patriotism as noteworthy.
  • Aizawa found similarities between Christianity's values of loyalty and truth to those of Japan.
  • Sidotti's desire to convey his religious ideas through vast distances despite dangers underscored his devotion.

Aizawa Seishisai on the "Sages' Quan"

  • People need a national "quan" (strength or power) to defend their borders
  • Foreign peoples were motivated by a spurious god not found in nature.
  • This false god distracted the population and led them to betray national values.
  • Condemned foreign influence.
  • Aizawa Seishisai emphasized the importance of the Sages' Quan(power) in maintaining national integrity and security.

Ogyū Sorai on the "Sages' Quan"

  • Ogyū Sorai researched the Chinese term "quan" (權).
  • He defined "quan" in terms of a balance or weight in the sense of deliberations and weighing of various factors.
  • Used the term to depict the principles(權力) of sovereignty and leadership.
  • Emphasized concepts such as "public harmony".

Thomas Hobbes

  • Compared Aizawa Seishisai's concept of kokutai to Hobbes' visual representation of Leviathan as a "body" composed of individual people directed by a singular leader in Leviathan (1651).
  • Hobbes' Leviathan frontispiece depicted the Sovereign as a figure composed entirely of people directed by a singular leader, who is staring, half invitingly and half menacingly, at the reader in turn.
  • Note that this drawing of Leviathan referenced St. Paul's definition of the church, referring to Christ as the head of the church's body.

The Emperor in the Text of the Meiji Constitution

  • Article 1: The Emperor reigns and governs by an unbroken line of Emperors for eternity.
  • Article 4: The Emperor is head of state, overseeing all rights of sovereignty
  • Article 5: The Emperor participates in legislating laws with the consent of the Imperial Diet
  • Article 6: The Emperor approves and enforces promulgated laws.

Itō Hirobumi's "Axis Speech"

  • Itō Hirobumi advised the Privy Council on the need for a strong national axis to prevent the collapse of the state
  • Itō Hirobumi argued that Japan's lack of widespread religious belief limited its ability to act as a unified entity in the face of challenges from the West.
  • Itō Hirobumi argued that the imperial family would fulfill that role.
  • This demonstrates Japan’s need for an emperor-centered national identity in the context of modern nation-building and responses to Western influence.

Nakae Chōmin on the Constitution

  • Nakae Chōmin defined the constitution as the collective effort and cooperation of forming a nation.
  • Nakae Chōmin presented the Constitution as the embodiment of Japan's incorporation as a unified entity.
  • The constitution was viewed as the framework for a country's structure, rules and regulations necessary to secure societal welfare.

Iwakura Mission (1871-1873)

  • The Iwakura Mission examined political practices in Europe for the modernization of Japan.
  • Europeans generally adopted a corporate form of governing.
  • European government units, from the largest to the smallest, were organized in the form of a corporation.
  • The Iwakura Mission reported that the formal organization of various governing bodies into corporations were consistent throughout European civilization.

"Society" ↔ "Corporation"

  • In the 19th century, a contrast emerged between "society" and "corporation" in Japan.
  • "Society" was central to debates in “modern” Japan, while "state" ("kokka") was introduced in "early modern" times.
  • In this era, the term "kokka" had new connotations that were introduced into the debate, and in contrast to "society".

Tocqueville, Democracy in America

  • Tocqueville observed the significant role of Christianity in shaping American political life.
  • Tocqueville noted that the Americans did not have a democratic revolution but arrived at their democratic social state naturally.
  • Americans developed certain laws and political mores, which were influenced in part by their unique cultural heritage, which had developed over time.

Aizawa Seishisai and Amaterasu

  • Aizawa Seishisai interpreted Shinto teachings (i.e., Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess) as the foundations of the country's governance.
  • The relationship of the imperial line to the natural process of the seasons became important.
  • Aizawa incorporated this relationship into his teachings and analysis.

The Unequal Treaties with China

  • War with China (1839-1842) resulted in treaties that heavily favored British interests in the Chinese Empire.
  • Treaties involved British trade access to specified ports, lower duties on goods, legal protection for British citizens in China, and the cession of Hong Kong to Britain.
  • The humiliation of China due to the Opium War caused a significant impact on the Japanese, who were concerned about their ability to protect their sovereignty.

Government Responses and Tenpo Reforms

  • Mizuno Tadakuni initiated reforms to improve national defense (1843).
  • The aim was to strengthen the defenses in Edo and around the greater Kyoto region, including Niigata, Shimoda and Haneda.
  • Mizuno's reforms were met with resistance by the regional daimyo, leading to his resignation, and substantial reversals of those reforms shortly afterwards.
  • National strength was paramount to defense and stability of the compound state (the shogunate).
  • Shogun leyoshi emphasized the importance of “harmony”.

The American Turn Toward Japan

  • Increasing presence of American whaling ships in Japanese waters began in the 1820s.
  • The opening of new treaty ports in China (like Shanghai), spurred American interest in the Chinese trade.
  • The Mexican-American War led to the acquisition of California (1848).
  • Allegedly harsh treatment of shipwrecked Americans in Japan led to anxieties that prompted a surge of interest in establishing coaling stations in Japan.

Letter from King Willem II of the Netherlands

  • The increasing interaction among nations accelerated by steamships made isolation difficult for those who wished to remain isolated.

Letter by Commodore Perry to the Shogun

  • Perry stated the US desire for peaceful relations with Japan, in light of growing relations and increasing ease of travel between the nations.
  • Americans desired peace and friendship with Japan, yet Americans considered that Japan would resist such peaceful coexistence if they were viewed as enemies.
  • Increasing ease of communications led Perry to conclude that a policy of resisting peaceful relations was no longer wise for Japan.

The Advent of Steamships

  • The introduction of steamships in the world dramatically reduced travel times and distances, making isolation less practical.
  • Kaempfer's argument that Japan was geographically isolated was no longer valid with steamship travel.
  • The introduction of steamships brought anxieties regarding the ability of Japan to maintain its borders, and protect its values.
  • Perry had access to Kaempfer's "Enquiry" which documented the rationale behind Japan's seclusion policy, which was no longer fully valid given the speed of travel offered by steamships.

The Arrival of Perry in 1853

  • Perry's arrival was not entirely unexpected, as the Dutch in Dejima had informed the Japanese of Perry's plans.
  • Knowledge of Perry's mission was further reinforced by the presence of a knowledgeable Japanese castaway (Nakahama Manjirō) in New England prior to Perry's arrival.
  • Perry insisted on conducting relations as a civilized nation toward another.

Letter by U.S. president Millard Fillmore

  • Millard Fillmore insisted on the importance of treating shipwrecked mariners with kindness, protecting their property, and enabling their return home safely.
  • Fillmore underscored that the treatment of shipwrecked sailors was a vital factor in deciding whether relations with Japan could be maintained peacefully.
  • Fillmore emphasized that the treatment of sailors could determine if the US and Japan could be governed peacefully.

Abe Masahiro

  • Abe Masahiro was the chief advisor to the Tokugawa shogunate.
  • He attempted to fortify coastal defenses and encouraged increased regional defenses.
  • The difficulties of funding these proposals hampered the reforms' effectiveness.
  • He took a bold step in asking the daimyo how to respond to the American demands.

Hotta Masayoshi and the Harris Treaty

  • Hotta Masayoshi replaced Abe Masahiro as head of the shogunate.
  • Townsend Harris arrived to negotiate a trade treaty.
  • Harris' skillful negotiation emphasized the shogunate's vulnerability.
  • The resulting treaty established new treaty ports for trade.
  • The treaty established trade with America in ways analogous to the unequal treaties signed with China.

The Succession Crisis and the Treaty Problem

  • The issue of who succeeded the ailing shogun complicated the matter of how to respond to the Treaty demands.
  • Hotta Masayoshi sought imperial support for treaty ratification, which did not occur.
  • Li Naosuke assumed leadership and signed the Harris Treaty, setting the stage for Japan's eventual opening to the West.
  • The succession crisis provided an opportunity for factions like the Hitotsubashi and Matsudaira to gain influence.

Rise of Imperial Loyalism

  • Yoshida Shōin was influential in the rise of imperial loyalism.
  • His supporters demanded that the emperor be recognized as the supreme ruler.
  • Shōin used the slogan "Revere the Emperor, Expel the Barbarians" (Sonnō jōi).

Kōbu Gattai

  • Kōbu gattai (公武合体) was a slogan promoting unification between the court and the shogunate.
  • The slogan was used in the context of the impending succession crisis, highlighting the conflict over who should take over the shogunate and its relationship with the emperor.
  • The slogan was used to encourage a more unified response among the ruling class.

Political Moves of the Shogunate During the 1860s

  • Following the assassination of Li Naosuke, Tokugawa Yoshinobu married Kazunomiya, solidifying unity between the imperial family and the shogunate.
  • Matsudaira Yoshinaga was forced to retire from the Council of Elders.
  • Yoshinobu was appointed guardian of Emperor Kōmei's son, lemochi, while retaining the shogun's executive and legislative power.
  • Moderation and near abolishment of sankin kōtai (alternate attendance) took place.

Chōshū as a Restorationist Domain

  • Chōshū became a key player in the movement towards imperial restoration and the expulsion of foreign influence.
  • The Chōshū domain vigorously pursued anti-shogunate activities.
  • Chōshū's strong opposition to the foreign policies of the shogunate made them a crucial part of the movement.

Satsuma's Way to Alliance with Chōshū

  • Satsuma, a major domain, also played a significant role in the shift towards imperial restoration.
  • Satsuma's strong financial position and influence within the shogunate’s internal affairs became significant aspects of their foreign policies.
  • Satsuma and Chōshū eventually made an alliance against the weakening shogunate.
  • This culminated in a major defeat for the Shogunate.

Domestic Unrest

  • The opening of ports caused inflation.
  • This impacted domestic producers, leading to economic dislocations and riots.
  • Peasants and urban populations, affected by economic hardships created by the opening of ports, were visibly impacted by economic crisis.

Reforms of the Shogunate under Tokugawa Yoshinobu

  • The shogunate attempted to modernize in the face of the growing foreign challenges.
  • The Shogunate made changes in their foreign policies to align more closely with Western nations.
  • A new Shogunate was appointed, and the government moved in the direction of greater centralization.
  • A new "imperial government" would soon replace the shogunate.

Sakamoto Ryōma

  • Sakamoto Ryōma played a significant role in political maneuvering during the 1860s.
  • As a skilled political strategist, Ryōma facilitated the alliance between Satsuma and Chōshū, which played a critical role in the Meiji Restoration.
  • Ryōma proposed a plan for power-sharing between the imperial court and the shogunate, based on public opinion and debate.
  • Ryōma was assassinated in 1867.

"Restoration of Imperial Rule"

  • Various domains advocated for abolishing the shogunate and returning power to the emperor.
  • The shogunate's decision was primarily based on the influence of political groups who wished to limit the influence of the shogunate.
  • A formal decree (1868) established the imperial government, and traditional shogunate institutions were abolished.
  • Public debate (kōgi) was emphasized as a key process for the new government.

"Restoration of Imperial Rule" (continued)

  • Imperial forces moved into Kyoto, marking an immediate change to imperial rule.
  • The "Restoration Edict" (1868) officially ended the shogunate and began a new imperial government.
  • "Appropriate public discussion" (kōgi) was favored over traditional elitist-based power structures.
  • The Edict abolished traditional shogunate positions.

Yokoi Shōnan

  • Yokoi Shōnan served as a Confucian advisor to the Matsudaira family.
  • He articulated the concept of public harmony (kōkyō wahei) as a political ideal.
  • Condemned the warrior code (bushido) and the aristocratic nature of traditional Japanese civilization.
  • Yokoi promoted republican ideas expressed in the terms of Confucianism and Chinese philosophical thought.

Yokoi Shōnan, Kokuze sanron

  • Yokoi Shōnan argued that the three key principles of governance and success in America were: ending violence in international relations through moral principles; reform of government by learning from other cultures; and unifying the country through dedication to the people.
  • Yokoi emphasized that Japan should incorporate best practices and principles from other nations and adopt policies that were beneficial primarily to the people.

"Meiji Restoration" as a Comprehensive "Spiritual Regeneration"

  • Iwakura Tomomi, a significant figure in the 1868 coup, stressed the need and importance of a grand scale restoration(ishin) movement that addressed the fundamental aspects of Japanese governance.
  • This movement should be modeled after successful historical eras, particularly those of ancient rulers like the Emperor Jimmu.
  • This perspective was presented in a significant governmental document from 1876. This demonstrates the Meiji government's effort to establish a clear justification for abolishing the shogunate system.

"Meiji Restoration" as an Imperial “Government Reform"

  • The initial outline of the Meiji Constitution (1868) was termed a "Government Reform."
  • Writers such as Yokoi embraced the concept of kōsei ishin as a fundamental change to Japan political structure.
  • The Kobe Journal's translation of government reform provided a key statement for what would, after much change become the Meiji Constitution.
  • The term "reform" was used in a fundamentally governmental sense, as opposed to political reform, which would have broader implications that extend further than the ruling class. 

The “Meiji Restoration” as “the Restoration” in a Government Document

  • A government document from 1876 identified the Meiji Restoration with the renewal of Japan's historical mandate.
  • Zhu Xi's analysis of the concept of mandate in the classic of poetry was used in the document to support the idea of a new revitalized government.
  • The document used Confucian thought from China to explain the Meiji Restoration as a renewal of historical mandate.

Origin of the Term Ishin

  • This is a term that was used in commentaries for the "Great Learning".
  • The Great Learning was an important text in classical Chinese thought.
  • Zhu Xi, a major commentator, argued that a key concept here, "shin" (維新), represented a new mandate. 

Zhu Xi's Reading of "Shin" in the Great Learning

  • Zhu Xi interpreted "shin" as the renovation of people.
  • The interpretations from Zhu Xi align well with the Confucian ideas of "moral renewal."

Confucian "Moral Renovation" and English "Civilization"

  • Samuel Smiles' concept of "civilization" focused on individual improvement and growth.
  • Nakamura Masanao's translation of Smiles emphasized the shift in Japanese character away from traditional ways toward "moral renovation."
  • Confucian ideas of "moral renovation" were explicitly used in the context of English philosophies, highlighting the connections to both cultural traditions.

The "Meiji Restoration" as an Anglophone "Revolution"?

  • This is documented in a letter from a British diplomat (Ernest Satow) to a specialist in Japan; the letter suggests that the events of 1868 might be better understood as a revolution rather than political reform or an imperial restoration.

A Modern Revolution

  • Basil Hall Chamberlain's account of the early Meiji era emphasized the remarkable pace and scope of change in Japan.
  • He noted the contrast between the modern and traditional aspects of the period, emphasizing the enduring cultural tendencies while recognizing the profound transformations.

A Modern Revolution (Continued)

  • The transformation/transition/revolution of Japan was extremely swift as described by Chamberlain.
  • The persistence of national character amidst enormous change was emphasized as a key characteristic of the time.
  • Chamberlain commented on the rapid pace of modernization, and also the enduring nature of core cultural attributes that survived the modernization efforts.

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This quiz covers significant events and policies affecting Japan's foreign relations from 1808 to 1847. Key topics include the arrival of foreign ships, the Expulsion Edict of 1825, and the impact of the Treaty of Nanking on trade. Test your knowledge of these historical developments and their implications for Japan and other nations.

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