12th Century: Political Developments

• The 12th century spans from 1101 to 1200
• It is considered part of the High Middle Ages in European history

Political Developments

• The Investiture Controversy was a major conflict in the early 12th century
• This concerned the appointment of church officials
• The conflict also concerned the balance of power between the Pope and European monarchs
• The Concordat of Worms in 1122 provisionally resolved the Investiture Controversy, asserting papal authority over religious appointments
• The Crusades continued during this period
• The Second Crusade took place from 1147 to 1149
• It was launched in response to the fall of the County of Edessa to Turkish forces
• Crusader states in the Levant faced ongoing conflicts with neighboring Muslim powers
• The rise of powerful centralized monarchies occurred in Europe
• Henry II of England strengthened royal authority and developed common law
• In France, the Capetian dynasty consolidated its power
• The Holy Roman Empire experienced internal divisions and conflicts between the emperor and powerful nobles

Cultural and Intellectual Developments

• A renewed interest in classical learning occurred, known as the Renaissance of the 12th century
• Translation of Greek and Arabic texts into Latin increased
• Scholars rediscovered and disseminated ancient knowledge
• New schools and universities were founded
• The University of Bologna, the University of Paris, and the University of Oxford were among the earliest institutions of higher learning
• Scholasticism emerged as a dominant philosophical and theological method
• Thinkers like Peter Abelard applied logic and reason to theological questions
• The development of Gothic architecture took place
• Gothic cathedrals, such as Notre-Dame de Paris, showcased innovations in structural engineering and design
• Vernacular literature began to flourish
• Writings in languages other than Latin emerged
• The emergence of troubadour poetry took place, particularly in southern France
• These poets celebrated courtly love and chivalry

Economic and Social Developments

• Agricultural production increased due to new farming techniques
• The three-field system and the heavy plow improved crop yields
• Population growth occurred as a result of increased food supply
• Towns and cities grew in size and importance
• Trade and commerce expanded
• Merchant guilds and craft guilds regulated economic activity
• The development of a money economy took place
• Banking and financial institutions emerged
• Social structures remained largely feudal
• The rise of a merchant class began to challenge the traditional social order
• Serfdom persisted in many areas of Europe

Key Figures

• Henry II (King of England)
• Eleanor of Aquitaine (Queen of France and England)
• Frederick I Barbarossa (Holy Roman Emperor)
• Pope Innocent II
• Bernard of Clairvaux (Cistercian reformer)
• Peter Abelard (Scholastic philosopher)
• Hildegard of Bingen (Benedictine abbess, composer, and writer)

Technological Advancements

• Advances in shipbuilding improved maritime trade and exploration
• The compass and astrolabe aided navigation
• Mills (windmills and watermills) became more widespread for grinding grain and powering machinery

Religious Developments

• Religious orders, such as the Cistercians, experienced growth and reform
• New monastic orders like the Premonstratensians were established
• Mysticism and spiritual devotion gained prominence
• Figures like Hildegard of Bingen contributed to mystical thought and religious literature
• Heresies challenged orthodox religious beliefs
• Movements like the Cathars and Waldensians were suppressed by the Church

Conflicts and Wars

• The Anglo-Norman conflicts continued between England and France
• Border disputes and dynastic struggles occurred
• The Reconquista in the Iberian Peninsula saw Christian kingdoms making advances against Muslim territories
• The Almohad Caliphate posed a significant challenge to Christian forces

Long-Term Significance

• The 12th century laid the groundwork for many aspects of later medieval society
• The strengthening of monarchies, the growth of towns, and the intellectual developments of the period shaped the course of European history
• The cultural achievements of the 12th century, particularly in architecture and literature, left a lasting legacy
• The religious and social changes of the era contributed to the complexities of medieval life and set the stage for future transformations