Unit-3.pdf

Positive Psychology: An Introduction UNIT 3 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY* Structure 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Differences...

Positive Psychology: An Introduction UNIT 3 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY* Structure 3.1 Learning Objectives 3.2 Introduction 3.3 Differences in Cultural Worldviews 3.3.1 Psychologies and Worldviews 3.4 Indian Psychology: Meaning, Definition and Scope 3.5 Positive Psychology and Indian Psychology 3.5.1 Concepts associated with Pleasure, Happiness, Well-being and Flourishing 3.6 Purushārtha: Life Goals Worth Pursuing 3.7 Ānanda: Sustained Happiness and Well-being 3.8 Comparing the PP 1 and PP 2 with Indian Perspectives 3.9 Let Us Sum Up 3.10 Key Words 3.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3.12 Unit End Questions 3.13 References and Suggested Readings 3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES After studying this Unit, you would be able to: Discuss the relation between worldview, cultures and psychologies; Explain the meaning of Indian psychology; Describe the points of agreement and the basic differences between Western and Indian perspectives; Explain what is unique about Indian perspective on the issues related to positive psychology; and Appreciate the significance of different concepts of Indian psychology to extend and expand the range and scope of positive psychology. 3.2 INTRODUCTION Humanity’s quest to be happy and lead a meaningful and fulfilling life is not new. It has been there ever since human beings developed capacity to reflect on what life is and what is its meaning and purpose. In other words, when humans 50 Dr. Kiran Kumar K. Salagame, Former Professor of Psychology, Department of Studies in Psychology, * University of Mysore, Manasagangotri, Mysuru. evolved from pure instinctual ways of existence to conscious and purposeful Positive Psychology ways of leading life, the quest for happiness, well-being, thriving, flourishing, and Indian Psychology and so on have gained prominence. There are significant differences across cultures, within cultures and among individuals in the ways these have been expressed. In parallel there are also attempts to understand the nature of pain, suffering and sorrow and to find effective ways of overcoming them. So, this is not a new issue or theme when viewed from a larger and global context. Theoretical and empirical studies have been conducted in the field of positive psychology also to understand the cross-national and cross-cultural differences in the way happiness, well-being and flourishing are understood (Lomas, 2017; Lomas, et al., 2021; Mathews, 2012; Oishi, Graham, Kesebir ,& Galinha, 2013). In India also some such attempts have been made to examine the indigenous concepts and perspectives on happiness and well-being (see Choudry & Vinayachandra, 2015; Kumar, Archana, & Prakash, 2015; Salagame, 2003, 2004, 2006a, 2015; Singh, 2015; Singh & Misra, 2000; Srivastava & Misra, 2003). These are the focal issues studied in positive psychology and Indian psychology. In this Unit you will be introduced to Indian psychology briefly and how it differs from modern scientific psychology. Subsequently, the Indian concepts and perspectives on happiness and well-being will be discussed. You will also learn how the two visions of contemporary positive psychology relate to Indian perspectives, in what ways they agree and how they differ. In order to understand and appreciate the contents of this Unit much better and fully, you have to first study Unit 1 - Introduction to Positive Psychology in this course. You can also refer to Unit 7 - Differences between Indian and Western Psychology (Salagame, 2020, www.egyankosh.ac.in) in the BPCC 103 (Psychology of Individual Differences) core course of BA Hons Psychology (BAPCH) in Semester II. 3.3 DIFFERENCES IN CULTURAL WORLDVIEWS Due to wide spread systematic research in the field of Cross-Cultural Psychology our knowledge of within culture and between culture differences in human behaviour has increased. It is realized that the idea of culture is not monolithic. It is not necessary that cultural differences should exist only between certain geo-political regions such as Asia or Africa or Americas or East or West. They can be present even within a particular region and also within a nation itself. We speak of ‘tribal people and their culture’ in our country and also sub-cultural differences across the country from Kanya Kumari to Kashmir. Similarly, in North America, Australia and New Zealand they speak about ‘indigenous people and their culture. With recognition of such diversity within a particular country and across nations a new concept multiculturalism, has been introduced. It refers to the view that within a dominant political culture there are minority groups. They differ in their cultural, ethnic and racial background. Such differences need to be acknowledged and given importance in research and applied activities in our discipline. 51 Positive Psychology: Another important outcome is the growing realization that cultural belief An Introduction systems differ in their views about the nature of the universe and reality on the one hand and on the nature of life, awareness and mind on the other. Together such beliefs constitute the basis for shaping the ways of thinking (eidos) and the ways of living (ethos) and guide people in their day-to-day activities. They have been denoted in anthropology as: “Cultural orientations” (Kluckhohn, 1950), “value orientations,” “unconscious systems of meaning,” “unconscious canons of choice,” “configurations,” “culture themes,” and “core culture” (Kluckhohn & Strodtbeck, 1961/1973, pp. 1–2) (cited in Koltko-Rivera, 2004, p.4-6). A well-known sociologist Pitrim Sorokin studied world cultures before World War II and developed his famous theory of social-cultural dynamics in which he spoke of “cultural mentality/outlook.” (Sorokin 1985) Several other thinkers have employed different terminologies to refer to them: “Philosophy of life” (Jung, 1942/ 1954), “world hypotheses” (Pepper, 1942/ 1970), “world outlook” (Maslow, 1970a, p. 39), “assumptive worlds” (Frank, 1973), “visions of reality” (Messer, 1992, 2000), “self-and-world construct system” (Kottler & Hazler, 2001, p. 361), and many others.” (Cited in Koltko-Rivera,2004, p.4). In recent years the term “worldview” (Naugle, 2002; Koltko-Rivera, 2004) has been used more frequently in place of many of the above terms. 3.3.1 Psychologies and Worldviews A worldview is ‘a way of describing the universe and life within it,’ both in terms of 'what is’ and ‘what ought to be.’ From this a set of beliefs emerge that include: (a) limiting statements and assumptions regarding ‘what exists’ and ‘what does not’ (either in actuality, or in principle); (b) ‘what objects or experiences are good or bad’; (c) and ‘what objectives, behaviors, and relationships are desirable or undesirable’. Since, a worldview also determines (a) ‘what can be known or done in the world’ and ‘how it can be known or done’ they provide the epistemic and ontological foundations for other beliefs within a belief system (Koltko-Rivera, 2004). Epistemology is that branch of philosophy which studies how to develop valid knowledge about any phenomenon. Ontology is that branch of philosophy which studies what things exist in the world. Since modern psychology is rooted in what is called naturalist worldview, it rejects the idea and belief in supernatural or spiritual reality. It also holds that only empiricism is the best means of obtaining valid knowledge. It has no place for a belief in the existence of soul or spirit. It does not recognize intuition and revelation as possible ways of obtaining valid knowledge. Worldviews also give rise to beliefs about ‘what goals can be sought in life’ and ‘what goals should be pursued.’ They set the tone for conceptualizing the meaning and purpose of life, and motivation and goals to be pursued. In this regard modern psychology views life as a onetime affair, a duration between two events – birth and death. It has not accepted the idea of the continuity of the life, the soul and the ideas of reincarnation and liberation, which are part of the spiritual world view. In other words, many aspects of human nature and personality that are associated with the spiritual beliefs are rejected in toto. Therefore, cognitive psychology, 52 developmental psychology, personality psychology, social psychology and Positive Psychology abnormal psychology which lay the foundation for our understanding of human and Indian Psychology behavior are limited in their scope. It is argued that modern scientific psychology developed primarily in the background of western cultural belief system or worldview, is incomplete and inadequate to understand complete human nature. Its avowed aim of studying mental functions and behaviour scientifically in order to develop theories, principles and laws of universal application is increasingly doubted. It is observed that generalizing them to people of other nations and cultures has severe limitations because of important differences in cultural worldviews. Hence, the claim that it can arrive at universally applicable laws and principles is questioned and debated as universalism vs. contextualism (Bem and de Jong, 1999). But in many Asian and Eastern cultural worldviews, the human possibilities rejected in the naturalist worldview are accepted as valid. Not only that, even within western societies where the naturalist worldview is very dominant, there are minorities who subscribe to a spiritual worldview. As a result, we have new fields of inquiry like parapsychology that emerged more than a century ago and recently emerged new field transpersonal psychology. Recognition of cross- cultural and multicultural differences has also led to the development of ‘cross- cultural counselling’ and ‘multicultural counselling’ in our discipline. They are very important in the present age because there is an increase in migration of people from one country to another. Mostly people from Asia and Africa are migrating to Arabian nations, Australia, Canada, European Union, New Zealand, UK and the USA for economic opportunities and better quality of living. This has implications for our understanding of the concepts of happiness and for the development of positive psychology, because we are in the era of globalization. In addition to all such developments there is an increasing awareness and appreciation of the fact that in all cultures there exists some understanding about the nature of mind and its activities, however rudimentary they may be. They are implicit in cultural belief systems and ways of life. Such cultural understandings shape the behavior of people across societies and cultures. However, their explicit formulations, articulation and systematization as laws, principles and theories of human behavior vary in degree from one culture to another. They are referred to as naïve theory, naïve psychology, ethno psychology, folk psychology, and so on. In the background of all these developments, an alternative view has been popularized by some leading thinkers and researchers under the banner of Cultural Psychology (Shweder, 1991), Social Constructionism (Gergen et. al., 1996), Indigenous Psychologies (Kim & Berry, 1993), Contextualism (Capaldi and Proctor, 1999) and Folk Psychology (Thomas, 2001). They highlight the importance of culture in the development of psychology. Modern scientific psychology has so far treated other societies and cultures as “target” to verify the laws, principles and theories developed in the west. But the above perspectives emphasize on considering cultures as “sources” for generating new concepts, models and theories (Sinha, 1994) that are relevant and useful to understand the behavior of people in a specific culture and society. In this background psychologists all over the globe have attempted to develop indigenous 53 Positive Psychology: psychologies. Attempts to develop Indian psychology can be understood in this An Introduction broader and global context. 3.4 INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY: MEANING, DEFINITION AND SCOPE In the past four decades the term ‘Indian Psychology’ has gained greater currency nationally. The “Pondicherry Manifesto of Indian Psychology,” was signed by 160 delegates who attended a conference held at Puducherry, India in October 2002. The manifesto emphasizes the need and importance of developing the psychological perspectives that is relevant for Indian cultural context. (http:// www.ipi.org.in/texts/yaiap/pondicherrymanifesto.php). In the literature the term is used with different connotations. The most important meaning of this term is related to the psychological insights embedded in the three ancient traditions of our country viz., Vaidika, Jaina and Bouddha (Sinha, 1958, 1960, 1963). It is also referred to as ‘Indian psychological thought’ (Rao, 1962). Terms like Yoga Psychology, Jaina Psychology and Buddhist Psychology represent ‘psychology with an Indian identity.’ The term is also used to refer to , ‘a system of psychology created by Indian psychologists’ who adhere to a particular vision of a great thinker or visionary. The best example of it is what is called “Integral Psychology of Sri Aurobindo.” Yet another connotation of the term represents ‘psychology of Indian people.’ This is exemplified in the works of Sudhir Kakkar a psychoanalyst trained under Eric Erickson who has written on the Indian Psyche from Psychoanalytic point of view (Salagame, 2011). The contemporary thrust on developing Indian Psychology has progressed from these different connotations, each of which suggest an approach (See Cornelissen, Misra, & Varma, 2011a, b, 2014; Misra, 2011; Misra & Mohanty, 2000; Paranjpe, 1984, 1998; Rao & Marwaha, 2005; Rao, Paranjpe, & Dalal, 2008; Rao & Paranjpe, 2016). There are entries in cross-cultural encyclopaedias published at international level (Misra & Paranjpe, 2012; Salagame, 2013a, 2019). There are several journal articles which discuss about Indian psychology in relation to global developments towards indigenization of psychology and the development of indigenous psychology (see Salagame, 2011 for a review of them). Considering the fact that Indian sages and saints observed and understood behavior both from the empirical stand point (vyāvahārika) and spiritual or transcendental (pāramārthika) it is possible to define Indian psychology keeping both in view as below. “Indian psychology is that body of knowledge related to consciousness, mental functions and behavior embedded in the wisdom traditions of India gained by the seer, by sages, saints, and thinkers from transcendental and empirical perspectives, as distinguished from the knowledge of modern psychology, which is primarily rooted in empiricism.” (Salagame, 2019, pp.2). Therefore, Indian psychological thought is broader and holistic in its vision of reality or worldview. Often Indian Psychology is portrayed only as religious and spiritual. But it should be noted that Indian sages wrote books both on Kāma Sūtra and Yoga Sūtra. Thus, the scope of what we now call Indian Psychology is very vast which ranges from the ordinary biological needs and desires to 54 the spiritual aspirations (Salagame, 2013a). In this background and context Positive Psychology Indian civilization has sought to determine the meaning and purpose of life in and Indian Psychology general and of human existence in particular. Most importantly, the emphasis on the human potential to transcend the ordinary limits of day-to-day awareness and realize one’s ‘true nature and identity’ which is not limited to bio-psycho- social aspects sets the tone for a different psychology altogether. All aspects of human behavior, cognition, affect and conation, have been discussed from this vantage point. Hence, even positive psychology has to be approached in this background. Self Assessment Questions 1 1. What does cultural belief systems include? 2. Explain naturalist worldview. 3. What is universalism vs. contextualism? 4. Indian psychological thought includes mainly three ancient traditions of ___________, ________________, and ________________. 3.5 POSITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND INDIAN PSYCHOLOGY Jane Henry (2013) notes that “Psychology has only recently turned its gaze to investigate happiness and well-being while spiritual traditions have been scrutinizing this for millennia” (p. 411). Lomas, Case, Cratty and Vander Weele (2021) have published a study entitled “A global theory of happiness.” They have discussed the different perspectives on happiness prevalent across the world starting from the ‘Indigenous perspectives in Australia’ dating back to 26,000 BCE to contemporary ‘Scientific perspectives.’ In between these two poles they include in their discussion ‘Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Chinese, Vedantic, Judaic, Persian, Buddhist, Hellenistic, Christian, Islamic, Renaissance, and Enlightenment perspectives.’ Their findings and conclusions can be summarized as follows. a) Happiness, broadly construed, is a mental phenomenon arising from the experience of living well. b) Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable mental experiences; c) Those mental experiences can be either pleasure or some kind of satisfaction not associated with hedonism. d) It is possible to contrast different forms of happiness. e) Differential emphasis is laid on different forms of happiness based on how true human well-being is understood in civilizations and what constitute it. The difference between contemporary positive psychology and the understanding of happiness and well-being in Indian psychology can be understood with reference to the above conclusions. 55 Positive Psychology: 3.5.1 Concepts Associated with Pleasure, Happiness, Well- An Introduction Being and Flourishing Indian psychology has many concepts associated with positive affective states and traits. They are in Sanskrit but their variants can be found in all the other languages of India which are too many. Here only the original concepts are discussed. We can classify them into four broad categories: (1) those which represent happiness in the ordinary states of consciousness; (2) those associated with the sense of health and wellness; (3) those associated with development and welfare; and (4) those associated with transcendental/spiritual state of consciousness (Salagame, 2006b; 2013b,c). 1) The first category includes sukha (agreeableness), samtosha (happiness), ullāsa (pleasantness), harsha (joy), shanti (peace), trpti (satisfaction), tushti (contentment). These affect states are commonly related to our experiences of day-to-day transaction with empirical reality. They are used in different contexts. They are determined by bio-psycho-social aspects. In particular, over the years in popular usage, the word sukha is associated with bhoga which connotes material pleasures though in the ancient literature no such specific association was made. Among these many concepts trpti (satisfaction), and tushti (contentment) are considered as the most important ones to remain happy and have a sustained sense of well-being. Perennial dissatisfaction (atrpti) is compared to a demon whose hunger is never satiated. A famous Indian saint of Karnataka, Purandara Dasa says “wanting more and more (greed) and not wanting to experience pain and wanting to have intense pleasure, is desiring a wasteful life!” 2) The second category includes concepts related to sense of health and well-being. They include physical and/or psychological health. They are ārogyam (good health), nirāmaya (freedom from disease or illness), swāsthyam (sound state of body/mind), shubha (to shine, be splendid, and look beautiful or handsome; eminent, good, virtuous). As per the Sanskrit- English dictionary of Apte (1988, p.85) the term ārogyam means good health and is used to refer to both physical and mental health. The term swāsthyam is used to represent well-being. It has two components: swa in Sanskrit means “one’s own, belonging to oneself, often serving as a reflexive pronoun; innate, natural, inherent, peculiar, inborn” (1988, p. 630); stha means “standing, staying, abiding, being, existing” (p. 621). The two components put together indicate a state of abiding in one’s self. Bhagavad Gita uses the term sthitaprajna to refer to this in a cognitive sense. Ayurveda defines swāsthya, as a condition of harmony in the functioning of soma, psyche and spirit. Swāsthya here refers to that condition of well- being in which the three dosha (body humours vāta, pitta and kapha), two agni (digestive forces) and seven dhātu (bodily constituents) remain in balance and harmony along with proper eliminative functions (malakriya) and pleasantness (prasanna) of the sense organs (indriya), mind (manas), and self (atma). To achieve such a state Āyurveda prescribes a holistic lifestyle that gives due importance to diet, nutrition, exercise, psychological 56 attitudes and values, social interactions, and spiritual practices. Āyurveda  has guided much of the Indian life style in terms of food habits, religious Positive Psychology practices, customs, and daily habits. and Indian Psychology 3) The terms abhivrddhi, abhyudaya, kalyāna, and mangala are also used which mostly denote growth, development, auspicious, welfare, and so on. These terms are used both with reference to individual and collective welfare. 4) Two specific terms ānanda and sthitaprajna are discussed in the second category. We find detailed discussions on the nature of these two concepts in the Upanishads and Bhagavadgita respectively. Just like the word sukha has been paired with material pleasures over the years, the word ānanda has come to be associated with yoga and spirituality. This is reflected in the conventional usage of the term ānanda as a suffix to designate renunciates (sanyāsi). For example, in the Vedic tradition swami, sadhu, yogi, and yati are given new names after they take up sanyāsa as Vivekananda, Ramakrishnanada, Chinmayananda, Yatishwarananda, Sampurnanda, and so on. However, in the Upanishads the word ānanda is used as a generic term to denote the mental experience associated with happiness. The word sthitaprajna is discussed at length in the 2nd Chapter of Bhagavadgita. It says “one who is satisfied in one’s Self” (ātmanyevātmanā trptah sthitaprajnastadochayte), i.e., Self-realized person remains satisfied in one’s true nature and does not seek happiness outside. 3.6 PURUSHĀRTHA: LIFE GOALS WORTH PURSUING Living well involves pursuit of valued and desirable experiences that can only be possible if one makes a conscious choice. Therefore, conscious pursuit of what one values and desires is termed as purushārtha. Thus purushartha refers to the life goals worthy of human pursuit. It is what a particular person values in life and desires to fulfill. There are individual differences in this. Purushartha consists of four broad goals namely, dharma, artha, kāma and moksha. These four classes of desirable goals are considered equally valid. However, it is very much recognized that human beings pursue artha and kāma more, which are materialistically oriented, and dharma and moksha less, which are spiritually oriented. In the Indian worldview a human being is understood as a composite of deha (physical body), jiva (soul) and atman (Self). Though the Jaina and Buddhist traditions differ from the Vedic tradition with regard to the independence of atman from body and soul, all three of them are accepted as sharing a spiritual worldview. From the spiritual perspective of India, souls undergo journey taking many births and hence death of a person is not the end of this journey. Therefore, human life is not a one-time affair. It is not a time duration or period between two specific events – birth and death. This possibility has given rise to fundamentally different views on the meaning of life and life lived well. Second, not only humans are said to undergo many births and deaths, they also have the capacity in them to consciously stop this cycle with effort and get liberated or release from this. This is termed as moksha, mukti, kaivalya and 57 Positive Psychology: sāyujya in different traditions. Therefore, the goal of life and life well lived are An Introduction defined keeping this highest humane possibility as the frame of reference. It is not only human beings even animals can also attain liberation from the cycle of birth and death, in the Indian worldview. Therefore, aspiring consciously to get liberated is considered as the parama purushartha, the supreme goal of human existence (Salagame, 2016). In view of the above, a distinction is drawn between preyas and shreyas. Pursuit of those desires which springs from right philosophic knowledge (vidya) and help us to move forward in the attainment of the final goal of life is called shreyas. All other actions which are not guided by such knowledge is called preyas (Hiriyanna, 1975). 3.7 ĀNANDA: SUSTAINED HAPPINESS AND WELL-BEING Indian psychological thought recognizes that man is animal and man is human. But it also goes a step forward to posit that man is divine/spiritual because it is developed and guided by a worldview that recognizes the reality of both physical and spiritual dimensions of human existence. Within the spiritual worldview of the Indian traditions - Vedic, Jaina, and Buddhist – it is proclaimed that human beings have the potentiality to evolve to a higher level and attain a Divine status. Such personas are called mahātma and mahāpurusha. They are embodiments of virtues of altruism, compassion and wisdom and a sense of universal brotherhood. Some of them are also persons of extraordinary spiritual powers. They are also not afflicted with desire (kāma), anger (krodha), greed or avarice (lobha), attractions and attachment (moha), pride (mada) and jealousy (mātsarya). They are said to remain in a state of sustained equanimity (sthitaprajna) and sustained happiness (ānanda). Such a state is described as beyond the binary opposites or dualities (dwandwa) like pleasure and pain, struggles and sorrows, deprivation and disadvantage and other experiences which do not affect them. Such a state is possible when one is grounded in a state of awareness, which is beyond the limits of awareness of ordinary waking state. Hence, it is called transcendental/spiritual. Upanishads term such a ground state/transcendent state as turiya, which means fourth in Sanskrit distinguished from waking (jāgrt), dream (swapna) and deep sleep (sushupti). Turiya is known to support the other three states and it is ever present. Hence, being established in that state and functioning is considered the ideal state of well-being and flourishing. This is what Krishna tells Arjuna, when he says yogastha kuru karmān – discharge your duty being established in Yoga, which is nothing but that transcendental awareness. For one who is in that state, dukkha and sukha in the ordinary sense are not of much consequence because they do not affect them. That is the essence of Krishna’s instructions to Arjuna in the Second Chapter of Bhagavadgīta. Accordingly, Indian tradition has approached the issues of happiness, quality of life, well-being, flourishing and human welfare from a broader perspective as compared to that of the west. All the positive emotion, positive motivational and temperamental traits are discussed in terms of three gunas viz., sattva, rajas, and tamas. The more a person develops sattva guna, the more such a 58 person experiences an overall sense of well-being. This is the essence of Indian Positive Psychology view (Salagame, 2003, 2004, 2006a). and Indian Psychology 3.8 COMPARING THE PP 1 AND PP 2 WITH INDIAN PERSPECTIVES You have already learned about the two visions of Positive Psychology (PP 1 and PP 2 by Martin Seligman and Paul Wong respectively) in Unit 1. Refer to the Unit for a quick recap. Here we can note certain important differences between PP 1 and PP 2 in the light of Indian thought. First, Seligman focused more on positive experiences, positive traits, and the community and institutions that help in the development of them. In this vision, the role of pain and suffering was not recognized. Second, Wong focused on this neglected aspects in Seligman’s vision. He emphasizes that the term positive psychology need not imply we neglect the importance of what is seen as negatives of life. He has argued that even our struggles of life and consequent pain and suffering also contribute for human growth by providing meaning, if properly viewed, and thereby to our sense of well-being. Therefore, PP1 and PP2 taken together provide us a better picture which is not one sided about the meaning of well-being than considering either of them. Wong, of course has extended the vision of PP1, but due to his existential background and emphasis on meaning tend to focus more on this in his views. In contrast to PP1 and PP2, the Indian thought approaches the subject of well-being from a vantage point that goes beyond the binaries, as mentioned in the previous section. It is interesting and important to note that Abraham Maslow in his last work Farther Reaches of Human Nature (published posthumously) did recognize that human beings not only aspire to fulfill the need for self-actualization they also have a need for self-transcendence. He termed them as “peakers” or “transcenders.” He distinguished them from merely healthy self-actualizers. Transcenders wish to remain in what U. A. Asrani described as “unitive consciousness.” Healthy self-actualizers, on the other hand, undergo peak experience or transcendent experience but engage themselves actively in society actualizing their potentialities (Maslow, 1971). Neither PP1 nor PP2 recognize transcendence as understood by Maslow or by Indian thinkers. The discussion of Being values in Maslow’s theory and the idea of meaning as one of the elements of well-being in PP1 and PP2 appear to be similar. In other words, both PP1 and PP2 do not speak so much about the need for self-transcendence in the Maslowian sense or what Indian rishis or yogis have envisioned. Thus, Indian psychological thought is guided by a broader and deeper worldview. Our discussion of issues related to positive psychology need to be approached within that framework. This will help to expand the range and scope of contemporary positive psychology discourse. Self Assessment Questions 2 1. What are the four different broad forms of happiness? 2. Name the broad goals of Purushārtha. 3. What is the fourth state of awareness? 4. What is the latest need added by Maslow in his hierarchy of need? 59 Positive Psychology: An Introduction 3. 9 LET US SUM UP Human quest for happiness, well-being and flourishing, which are the key concepts of positive psychology, have been there from several thousands of years. Ever since human beings became conscious and their actions were not motivated by mere biological needs similar to animals, the problems related to pleasure, happiness and satisfaction have been encountered and discussed in all civilizations and cultures. It is found that these problems are related to experiencing a mental phenomenon and that is possible by leading a life which is considered desirable and valued. Answers and solutions proposed range from experiencing only pleasure and avoiding pain which is called hedonism to finding satisfaction and contentment in pursuit of activities that are not necessarily seeking pleasure, which could even involve undergoing difficult moments and challenges. Therefore, the range of mental phenomena related to happiness is wide, that includes seeking pleasure at the one end to treating struggles, sufferings and sorrow in life as pathway to achieve a sustained level of well-being on the other end. Civilizations and cultures across the globe recognize them and have differential thrust on what is essential and desirable and what is ideal. This in turn is determined by the worldviews and what is considered as true human nature and what constitute them. Nations and societies differ in worldviews. Generally, there is dominant worldview in each nation with some sections of the society who are minority in number who may have a different worldview. Hence, between culture and within culture variations in worldviews have been documented. Contemporarily, considering all the civilizations from times immemorial to modern and postmodern period, two predominant worldviews are often distinguished viz., material or naturalist and spiritual. Positive psychology has developed within the framework of naturalist worldview. Indian psychology has developed within the framework of spiritual worldview. The spiritual worldview upholds the possibility that human beings can themselves evolve to the level of divinity. Therefore, Indian culture looks at humans at three levels – human being as an animal, as unique human being and as one who has the potential to reach divinity or godhead. Accordingly, what is true and ideal state of happiness and well-being are also differentiated. There are many concepts which are employed in the Indian context to identify different levels of happiness and well-being. We can use them to extend and expand the range and scope of positive psychology. 3.10 KEY WORDS Multiculturalism refers to the view that within a dominant political culture there are minority groups which differ in their cultural, ethnic and racial background. Worldviews refer to the ways of thinking (eidos) and the ways of living (ethos) and guide people in their day-to-day activities. Purushārtha refers to the conscious pursuit of what one values and desires in life. 60 Ānanda refers to sustained happiness. Parama purushartha refers to aspiring consciously to get liberated which is Positive Psychology considered as the supreme goal of human existence. and Indian Psychology 3.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1 1. Cultural belief systems include views about the nature of the universe and reality on the one hand and on the nature of life, awareness and mind on the other. 2. Naturalist worldview holds that only empiricism is the best means of obtaining valid knowledge, and it rejects the idea and belief in supernatural or spiritual reality. 3. Universalism focuses on finding universally applicable laws and principles, and generalizing them to people of other nations and cultures; whereas contextualism focuses on the specific context/cultural worldviews. 4. Vaidika, Jaina and Bouddha Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2 1. Happiness in the ordinary states of consciousness; those associated with the sense of health and wellness; those associated with development and welfare; and those associated with transcendental/spiritual state of consciousness. 2. dharma, artha, kāma and moksha. 3. Shreyas refers to the pursuit of those desires which springs from right philosophic knowledge (vidya) and help us to move forward in the attainment of the final goal of life. All other actions which are not guided by such knowledge is called preyas. 4. Turiya 5. Need for self-transcendence 3.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS 1. Explain the relationship between Indian psychology and Positive psychology. 2. Explain purushartha. 3. Explain the concepts associated with pleasure, happiness, well-being and flourishing. 4. Provide a comparative account of PP 1 and PP 2 with Indian perspectives. FURTHER ACTIVITIES Read Chapter 2 of Bhagavadgita to understand more about the characteristics of a sthitaprajna and how to regulate our emotions and remain in a balanced state. 61 Positive Psychology: Read Chapter 14 of Bhagavadgita to understand more about positive and An Introduction negative emotions and traits. Read more about the concept of swāsthya in Ayurveda. You can refer to any source available. 3.13 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS Apte, V. S. (1970). The student’s’ Sanskrit English dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas (2nd Ed.) Bem, S. & de Jong, H.L. (2006). Theoretical issues in Psychology- an Introduction. New Delhi: Sage Publication. (2ndedn.) Capaldi, E.J. & Proctor, R.W. (1999). Contextualism in Psychological Research? A Critical Review. New Delhi: Sage Publications Choudry, A., Vinayachandra, B.K. (2015) Understanding Happiness: The Concept of sukha as ‘Excellent Space’. Psychological Studies, 60, 356–367 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-015-0319-5. 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