Chapter 5 Correlates of Criminal Behaviour PDF

Chapter 5 Correlates of Criminal Behaviour by Temitope Oriola University of Alberta Slides prepared by...

Chapter 5 Correlates of Criminal Behaviour by Temitope Oriola University of Alberta Slides prepared by Stephen Schneider Saint Mary’s University Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-1 Introduction Correlates of crime: variables that are connected with crime A correlate is “a phenomenon that accompanies another phenomenon & is related in some way to it” (Hartnagel, 2012) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-2 Introduction This chapter age explores six gender socio- ethno-racial background demographic drug and alcohol misuse variables of socioeconomic status offenders that correlate with spatial location of crime: offences Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-3 Introduction Key questions: Who is likely to be involved in crime? How is crime gendered? What does age have to do with criminality? Does race have any relationship with crime? Caution: Correlation is not the same as causation; the correlates examined in this chapter do not necessarily cause crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-4 Correlation vs causation Correlation does not equal causation; while certain factors may be associated with criminal behavior, they do not directly cause it. No single factor fully explains crime, as each correlate— age, gender, race, drug and alcohol use, socioeconomic status, and spatial location—contributes to a complex interplay of influences. A change in any correlate may not necessarily result in a change in crime. Learning Objectives Describe the major correlates of criminal behaviour. Explain the trends and patterns of age and gender distribution of criminal behaviour. Demonstrate an understanding of the relationship between race and crime. Explain the reasons for the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the CJS through the colonial model, the trauma transmission model, and critical race theory. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-6 Learning Objectives (cont.) Critique cultural theories of Indigenous overrepresentation in crime. Analyze the relationship between drug and alcohol use and crime. Demonstrate an understanding of the complex interplay of socioeconomic status and crime. Explain how crime rates vary by spatial location or geographic region in Canada. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-7 Age as a Correlate of Criminal Behaviour Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-8 Age as a Correlate of Criminal Behaviour Criminal activity intensifies in adolescence and young adulthood and declines thereafter. persons aged 12 to 24 commit a disproportionate number of homicides. Rates of individuals accused of homicide and attempted murder and assault (levels 1, 2 and 3) were highest among young adults. Peak age of criminal offending is 17 to 19. Young people are disproportionately involved in crime generally and in violent crime specifically. However, most of this crime is nonviolent. Individuals accused of cannabis possession accounted for two-thirds (67%) of all young adults accused in drug crimes. Youth aged 12 to 17 had higher rates than young adults for many property crimes, most notably breaking and entering and theft of $5,000 or under Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-9 Figure 5.1: Persons Accused of Crime, aged 12 to 65 Years, 2011, Canada Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-10 Age as a Correlate of Criminal Behaviour Cases Completed in Adult Criminal Court, by Age Group of the Accused (2011–12) People aged 18 to 34 were involved in 59% of all cases completed in adult criminal court in 2011–12. People aged 35 to 44 were responsible for 41% of all cases completed in adult criminal court in 2011–12 (Figure 5.2). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-11 Figure 5.2: Cases Completed in Adult Criminal Court, by Age Group of the Accused, 2011/2012, Canada Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-12  Why Do Young People Commit More Crimes? Maturational reform: people are less likely to commit crime as they grow older. Adolescence is a period of transition marked by ambiguity. Adolescents are neither children nor adults and may not be fully committed to conventional values. The confusion, marginality, and “inbetween-ness” of adolescents may be conducive to criminal behaviour. Adults have greater incentives (job and marriage) to conform. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-13 Why Do Young People Commit More Crimes? Maturational reform encompasses three factors that may cause crime to decline as one ages: 1. Physiological limitations, 2. Greater formation of social bonds (work, marriage, children) means individuals have other people who depend on them to make the “right” choices (life course theory), and 3. People become more socially responsible. The notion of maturational reform is intertwined with life course theory. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-14 Why Do Young People Commit More Crimes? The notion of maturational reform is Desistence from criminal behaviour influenced by intertwined social bonds and the onset of with life major life events: course theory aging which is marriage concerned with the “role education of age-graded children transitions & legal, stable work social controls.” Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-15  Why Do Young People Commit More Crimes? Desistence is the “process of abstaining from crime among those who previously had engaged in a sustained pattern of offending”. Desistence can occur in one of two ways: 1. First, desistence can occur naturally, such as through the aging process, maturation, marriage, and/or strengthened ties to civil society. 2. Second, it can be encouraged or induced through deliberate interventions that target criminogenic and recidivist risk factors among offenders. Whether it is naturally occurring or prompted by structured interventions, desistence is “a process of gradually decreasing offending, rather than a sudden one-off decision not to offend again, which is immediately put into effect”. Gender as a Correlate of Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-17 Gender as a Correlate of Crime Males are overrepresented among offenders. In Canada in 2014/15, males made up: 80% of defendants in adult criminal court 98% of the accused in sexual assaults 89% of robbery cases 86% of homicide cases 77% of major assault cases Females are less likely to be charged with criminal offences. Women’s imprisonment has not increased in the past few decades in Canada. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-18 Figure 5.4: Percentage of Charges in Adult Criminal Courts, by Gender, 2014/15 (Selected Criminal Offences) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-19 Figure 5.5: Youth Custody and Community Services (YCCS), Admissions to Correctional Services by Age Group and Gender in 2011/2012, Canada Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-20 Women and Violent Crime 86% of those accused of homicide in 2016 were male. 75% of homicide victims are males. Of the 500 persons held in 2013 under the “dangerous offender” law, only one was a woman (The "dangerous offender" category identifies the most violent individuals among those convicted of serious crimes in Canada. Under section 753 of the Criminal Code, this law distinguishes highly aggressive repeat offenders convicted of violent or sexual crimes. A dangerous offender can be imprisoned indefinitely) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-21  Figure 5.6: Distribution of Persons Accused of Homicide by Gender, 2012, Canada 86 percent of persons accused of homicide in 2016 were male Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-22 Figure 5.7: Distribution of Victims of Homicide per Gender, 2016, Canada Most homicide victims are male (75%) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-23 Women and Violent Crime Both males and females are more likely to be killed by males. Females are more than twice as likely as males to be killed by their spouse. When a woman commits a violent crime, it is often against someone closely related to her. Victims of female acts of violence in 2015 were: the spouse or some other intimate partner (36%) an acquaintance (35%) a family member (17%) a stranger (12%) Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-24 Video Women and Violent Crime Heimer and De Coster (1999): the gender gap in violent crime is the result of structural positions and cultural processes: 1. Violent delinquency results from the social learning of violent behaviors by both genders. 2. Direct parental controls, such as aggressive discipline, have a stronger effect on boys' violent definitions than on girls’. 3. Indirect parental controls, like emotional attachment to family, significantly influence girls' learning of violence but not boys’. 4. Direct supervision of friendships helps reduce violent delinquency in boys, while it does not impact girls. 5. Girls who accept traditional gender roles have lower rates of violence, while this factor does not affect boys. 6. The influence of social structure on criminal behavior differs between boys and girls. 7. Boys exhibit higher violent delinquency partly due to greater exposure to violent definitions and experiences, as well as lower emotional attachment to family. 5-26 Women and Violent Crime Structural disadvantage influences male violent crime: In general, the most violent males are those who are the most disadvantaged (Studies of structural disadvantage factors, such as poverty, on male violent crime have produced fairly consistent results) Structural disadvantage is also associated with female violent crimes (structural disadvantage had “significant effects” on robbery and homicide and modest effects on the rates of ­- larceny, burglary, and aggravated assault committed by women) However, structural disadvantage has a greater impact on men’s criminal behaviour than on women’s. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-27 Women and Violent Crime Daly (1992) Harmed & harming describes women five Battered women pathways Street women for Drug-connected women’s women involvemen Other women t in crime: Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-28 Women and Violent Crime 1. Harmed and Harming Women: These women have experienced abuse, often from adult males, and may have faced abandonment by their mothers. They are seen as "out of control" and often turn to substance abuse, leading to criminal behavior when intoxicated or unable to manage anger. 2. Battered Women: Their criminal activities are driven by abusive partners, with violent relationships being a central factor in their offending. 3. Street Women: These women have faced significant abuse and are involved in street life, engaging in survival strategies like prostitution and theft. They tend to have longer criminal records and more incarceration experiences. 4. Drug-Connected Women: Linked to drug use and sales through relationships with family or partners involved in drugs, these women are not necessarily addicted or have extensive criminal histories. 5. Other Women: This group comprises women with stable family backgrounds and no history of abuse, who engage in crime primarily for economic reasons. Is There Evidence for the Role Convergence Hypothesis? Explanations for gender differences in criminal behaviour are embedded in social structure, particularly in patriarchal traditions: The roles are well-defined. Males and females are held to widely divergent standards and expectations in what constitutes appropriate behavior. Home is the main site of acculturation and gender contestation where boys and girls learn behaviours. It is in the home that boys and girls learn appropriate behaviours. Girls are subjected to greater control than their male siblings in the same household. This may explain lower crime rates among women. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-30 Is There Evidence for the Role Convergence Hypothesis? Role convergence hypothesis: As the work roles of women become similar to those of men, so will their involvement in crime. This hypothesis is not supported by research. The gender gap for criminal offending has declined. This may be due to changing police charging patterns against female offenders and a reduction in male criminal offending. There has been an increase in females committing minor property offences, which may reflect the feminization of poverty. While more women are in corporate positions, men still commit most corporate crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-31 Is There Evidence for the Role Convergence Hypothesis? The gender gap in crime has declined, but varies based on offences. Greatest increase in female involvement was in minor property offenses (shoplifting, credit card fraud, bad cheques). This may reflect the feminization of poverty more than any changes in gender roles. Young girls in 2000 were twice as likely to be charged as their 1980 counterparts, while the pattern for boys had remained constant. The gender gap may be shrinking because of a reduction in male criminal behaviour. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-32 Is There Evidence for the Role Convergence Hypothesis? Recent research has reinforced Daly's findings on gender patterns in corporate crime, identifying two main pathways for women involved in this illegal activity: 1. Relational Pathway: Many women defendants have personal relationships with male masterminds, often spouses (one-third of female defendants were linked to male co-conspirators) 2. Utility Pathway: Women often occupy roles that make them instruments of financial manipulation rather than the primary offenders. Approximately 68% were charged as co-conspirators, and three-quarters participated due to pressure from male bosses. The study revealed that female offenders generally received lower rewards than their male counterparts, with high compensation mostly going to the spouses of male masterminds. Race and Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-34 Race and Crime Race is not as strongly related to crime as age and gender. Some minority groups are overrepresented in police- reported crime statistics in Canada. Over-representation is influenced by location: Prairies: Indigenous people are overrepresented Toronto and Nova Scotia: African Canadians are overrepresented. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-35 Race and Crime More likely More likely Disproport- to be to receive African ionately stopped and tougher represented Canadian searched sentences in s are: (racially- from courts correctional profiled) by compared to institutions police white people Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-36 Story and video Race and Crime A majority of black Toronto police officers stated that they had been stopped and searched by their colleagues when they were off duty “for no other reason than the colour of their skin” Today, Canadians of African descent comprise 8.6 percent of the federal inmate population although they are less than 3 percent of the general Canadian population. Race and Crime Two explanations of overrepresentation of minorities in the CJS are 1. Differential offending hypothesis—there is a difference between racial groups in terms of the incidence, level of seriousness, and persistence of offending patterns; and 2. Differential treatment hypothesis—structural inequality in the administration of justice is responsible for overrepresentation. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-33 Race and Crime Fitzgerald and Carrington (2011) outline the differential treatment hypothesis in three parts: 1.Targeted Attention: Police focus more on individuals fitting specific social criteria, such as young lower-class males, which often includes a disproportionate number of minority group members. 2.Surveillance of Social Spaces: Certain areas, particularly those marked by high unemployment, poverty, and social disorder, are subject to greater police scrutiny. These neighborhoods frequently contain newer immigrant populations and marginalized groups. 3.Discretion and Authority: Police decisions regarding stops, searches, and arrests may be influenced by a suspect's race or ethnicity. This initial police contact is crucial as it typically initiates the criminal justice process. Video Indigenous People and the Canadian Criminal Justice System Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-42 Indigenous People and the Canadian CJS Indigenous adults and youth are overrepresented in the criminal justice system. Indigenous adults make up 3% of the Canadian population, but 28% of male adults and 31% of female adults in federal corrections are Indigenous. Indigenous youth make up 3% of the population, but 31% of male youth and 44% of female youth in federal corrections are Indigenous. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-35 Figure 5.8: Representation of Indigenous (Male and Female) in Total Admission to Youth Custody and Community Services, 1997–98 to 2015–16, Canada In 2015–16, 31 percent of the male youth population in custody and community services were Indigenous males; Indigenous females represented 44 percent of female youth admitted to custody and community services. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-36 Figure 5.9: Aboriginal Adult Admissions to Custody, by Province and Territory, 2015–16, Canada In 2015–16, 87 percent of persons in custody in the Northwest Territories were Indigenous, compared to 52 percent of the general population (Figure 5.9). The situation is similar in other provinces and territories—for example, in Saskatchewan (77% versus 16%), Yukon (72% versus 23%), Manitoba (76% versus 17%), and Ontario (12% versus 2%). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-37 Indigenous People and the Canadian CJS Problems facing Indigenous people in the Canadian CJS: More likely to be denied bail More time is spent in pretrial detention More likely to be charged with multiple offences More likely not to have representation at court proceedings More than twice as likely to be incarcerated than non- Indigenous offenders More likely to plead guilty because they are intimidated by the court Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-38 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the Criminal Justice System? Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-47 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Several explanations have been offered for the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system. They include 1. Cultural theories 2. Structural Theories colonial model trauma transmission model critical race theory. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Cultural theories of crime analyze the traits and lifestyles of specific groups to explain their involvement in the criminal justice system, often highlighting the emergence of subcultures that oppose dominant societal norms. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Cultural Theories Indigenous cultures are different from the dominant Euro-Canadian culture in content and/or manner of expression. This predisposes them to conflict with the law. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-40 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Cultural explanations for Indigenous overrepresentation in the criminal justice system are problematic: Monolithic Culture: Assumes a uniform Indigenous culture, ignoring diversity among Indigenous peoples. Static Culture: Presents Indigenous culture as unchanged and uninfluenced by dominant cultures. Behavioral Stereotypes: Suggests there is a specific behavior that defines Indigenous identity. Pathologization: Implies an objective standard that labels Indigenous cultures as delinquent. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Structural Theories: Focus on historical context and societal structures as causes of criminality rather than individual or group pathology. Key Argument: Institutional arrangements, especially the distribution of resources (like education and jobs), and the functioning of the criminal justice system, significantly shape crime statistics across different ethno-racial groups. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Several explanations have been offered for the overrepresentation of Indigenous people in the criminal justice system. They include 1. Cultural theories 2. Structural Theories Colonial model Trauma transmission model Critical race theory. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Structural Theories: Colonial Model Colonialization has had devastating psychological and social consequences. The resulting alienation may manifest itself in crime and a high rate of violence within First Nations. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-54 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? The passage discusses the profound psychological impact of colonialism on Indigenous populations: 1. the systematic destruction of a group's identity, forcing individuals to prove their worth within a dominant society. This results in cultural limbo, where colonized individuals are neither fully connected to their traditional identity nor accepted by the colonizer, leading to confusion and alienation. 2. This alienation can foster self-hate, causing individuals to reject their cultural roots, which may manifest as horizontal violence—violent acts within the same social class, often driven by internalized anger and a lack of opportunities. 3. Most reported violent crimes are intra-class, reflecting the struggles of lower socioeconomic groups, exacerbated by issues like substance abuse and mental health disorders. Overall, the colonial model illustrates how the conditions created by colonialism contribute to criminal behavior, emphasizing the importance of historical context in understanding crime statistics, while still acknowledging individual agency. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Structural Theories: Historic Trauma Transmission Model Acculturation produces “learned helplessness” (fatalism). This leads to self-blame, passivity, hostile behaviours, and a decreased sense of self, which manifests itself in suicide, violence, and criminal behaviour. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-56 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? The model posits that when a group undergoes experiences like physical extermination, cultural genocide, and colonial oppression, they develop a state of "learned helplessness." This fatalism leads individuals to believe that their actions cannot change their circumstances, resulting in passivity and hostility. They tend to attribute their social failures to internal factors, which diminishes their self-esteem and sense of identity. This internalization of failure further entrenches their feelings of helplessness and alienation within society. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Traumatic memories can be transmitted across generations through four primary avenues: 1. Biological channels: This includes inherited predispositions to conditions like Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which can affect Indigenous youths’ communication abilities and understanding of legal processes. 2. Storytelling and cultural practices: Traumatic experiences are shared and passed on through narratives and culturally significant behaviors. 3. Direct social impacts: Trauma is also transmitted through experiences of violence, poor parenting, and other social issues that perpetuate cycles of abuse. 4. Psychological channels: Individual memories of pain and suffering contribute to a shared collective trauma, influencing the mental health and social conditions of subsequent generations.  Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Structural Theories: Critical Race Theory The CJS reflects dominant group’s norms and values and favours that group (the enforcement and interpretation of the law is subjective. That is, the law is not colour-blind) Racism in the CJS is not an aberration; it is “normal.” Indigenous people are overrepresented in the CJS because of their exclusion from mainstream society and because of overpolicing and harsh sentences. The theory also assumes that though the average member of society views the law as something tangible, like the weather, the law is in fact not an objective entity. Its enactment, enforcement, and interpretation are subjective processes; as a result, groups that are not well situated to make, enforce, and interpret laws often bear the brunt of the criminal justice system. So from this perspective, Indigenous people are overrepresented in the criminal justice system because of their systematic exclusion from the conventional opportunity structures of society and because of overpolicing and harsh sentences. Racialization is inherent in the CJS. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-59 Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? The concept of "legal indeterminacy" is crucial in critical race theory, highlighting that not all legal cases yield a single correct outcome; decisions can be unpredictable. For example, two individuals may face vastly different consequences for similar criminal behavior. Critical race theory emphasizes the roles of racial subordination, racism, and discrimination in the justice system, and it explores how race, gender, and class intersect within this context. Why Are Indigenous People Overrepresented in the CJS? Shifting the analysis from "race" to "racialization," defined as the process of constructing, differentiating, and excluding categories of the population. Racialization involves attributing meanings to specific traits that lead to the perception of races as real and unequal, impacting economic, political, and social dynamics. Racialization significantly influences perceptions within the criminal justice system. Research shows that Indigenous people and visible minorities often hold negative views of the police, impacting public trust and cooperation. When individuals believe their race affected their treatment in the justice system, it undermines the legitimacy of that system and can decrease public confidence, making it less likely for community members to engage with law enforcement. Drug and Alcohol Misuse as a Correlate of Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-62 Drug and Alcohol Misuse as a Correlate of Crime Use of illicit drugs strongly correlates with street crime. 75% of inmates enter custody with substance abuse issues; 50% of federal inmates do. “There is a direct link between their substance use and criminal behaviour” (Public Safety Canada, 2014). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-47 Drug and Alcohol Misuse as a Correlate of Crime 1)Efforts to support an Three addiction can lead to factors involvement in crimes (“psychopharmacological”). link 2)Individuals may commit crimes because they are under the substanc influence of drugs or alcohol (“economically compulsive”). e abuse 3)The mere possession of illegal and drugs in and of itself is a crime Also, violence is intrinsic to illicit crime: drug markets. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-48  Drug and Alcohol Misuse as a Correlate of Crime Alcohol consumption correlates with multiple social harms, including criminal violence. The Canadian Alcohol and Drug Use 2015 Survey shows that 14% of respondents reported suffering one harm because of somebody else’s drinking, 2.2% reported that they had been physically hurt, 6.3% felt threatened, and 8.9% suffered verbal abuse. Alcohol is a major source of calls for service by police Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-49 Socio-Economic Status and Criminal Behaviour Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-66  Socio-Economic Status and Criminal Behaviour Historically, lower classes have been seen as responsible for crime. They have been referred to as the “dangerous class,” “criminal class” or “underclass.” There are explicit socio-economic correlations: They are people at the margins of society (the unemployed, people in poverty, with little education, dependency, etc.). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-67 Socio-Economic Status and Criminal Behaviour The relationship between SES and crime is complex. People with low SES are overrepresented in police-reported statistics. This is in part because the crimes of the “middle and upper crime class systematically escaped official notice” (Gaylord & Galliher, 1988, 68). “Relationship between class and crime is class and crime specific” (Hagan, 1992, 9). Different classes are involved in different crimes because they have different opportunities to commit crimes Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-68 Socio-Economic Status and Criminal Behaviour Wright and colleagues (1999): High SES The link Low SES is a promotes between SES catalyst for delinquency by and crime is an delinquency reducing bonds indirect one that because it to conventional operates causes values while through alienation, increasing social mediating financial strain, power and risk- variables. and aggression. taking behaviours. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-69  Socio-Economic Status and Criminal Behaviour Research supports the idea that the SES–crime relationship depends on the type of crime. People with higher levels of education are less involved in crime. However, older and better educated people generally commit more sophisticated crimes. Younger and uneducated people commit crimes that require few or no skills. Violent men are overwhelmingly from low SES. Employment reduces recidivism. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-70 Spatial Location as a Correlate of Crime Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-71 Spatial Location as a Correlate of Crime Studies Canada has a show that The United low rate of different States has violence countries the highest compared to the United and cities violent crime States, but it is have rate among high compared different high-income to Europe and countries. Scandinavia levels of (Figure 5.10). crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-57 Spatial Location as a Correlate of Crime Studies show that different regions and cities in Canada have different levels of crime and violence. In Canada, crime is higher in the northern territories and Western provinces (Figure 5.12). Canada’s three largest cities—Toronto, Vancouver, and Montreal— have lower crime rates than smaller cities (e.g., Winnipeg, Regina, Thunder Bay). Rural areas have higher violent crime rates than larger urban centres (but lower property and total crime rates). Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-73 Figure 5.12: Police- Reported Crime Severity Index by Province and Territory, 2013, Canada Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-74 Spatial Location as a Correlate of Crime Studies show that different neighbourhoods have different patterns of crime. Violent juvenile behaviour declines when families move to wealthier neighbourhoods. Crime and violence are higher in poor, socially disadvantaged neighbourhoods. Neighbourhoods with greater “collective efficacy” have less crime. Characteristics of neighbourhoods and social context have been linked to Indigenous offending in Canada. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-75 Figure 5.13: Police- Reported Violent Crime Severity Index, by Census Metropolitan Area, 2013, Canada Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-76 Discussion Summary The six correlates of crime are age, gender, race, substance abuse, socio-economic status, and spatial location. Younger people commit more crime than older people. Most criminal activity peaks during the teen years. Women commit less crime than men, particularly in terms of serious and violent offences. In most countries, there are racial and ethnic differences in crime, due to some combination of differential offending and differential treatment by the justice system. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-78 Summary Drugs and alcohol are major contributors to crime. The linkage between socio-economic status and crime is complex and varies by type of crime Street crimes are mostly committed by people from the lower classes, while upper-class people are mostly involved in serious white-collar and corporate crimes. Different countries, provinces, cities, and neighbourhoods have very different rates of crime. Copyright © 2020 by Top Hat 5-79