Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology PDF

THIS PAGE IS BLANK Copyright © 2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any in...

THIS PAGE IS BLANK Copyright © 2006 New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers Published by New Age International (P) Ltd., Publishers All rights reserved. No part of this ebook may be reproduced in any form, by photostat, microfilm, xerography, or any other means, or incorporated into any information retrieval system, electronic or mechanical, without the written permission of the publisher. All inquiries should be emailed to [email protected] ISBN (10) : 81-224-2316-7 ISBN (13) : 978-81-224-2316-7 PUBLISHING FOR ONE WORLD NEW AGE INTERNATIONAL (P) LIMITED, PUBLISHERS 4835/24, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi - 110002 Visit us at www.newagepublishers.com  Dedicated to My Father Late Shri Sada Ram THIS PAGE IS BLANK  PREFACE Manufacturing and workshop practices have become important in the industrial envi- ronment to produce products for the service of mankind. The knowledge of manufacturing practices is highly essential for all engineers and technocrats for familiarizing themselves with modern concepts of manufacturing technologies. The basic need is to provide theoreti- cal and practical knowledge of manufacturing processes and workshop technology to all the engineering students. Therefore, an attempt has been made through this book to present both the theoretical and practical knowledge of these subjects. Considering the general needs of engineering students in the country and the fact that they hardly get any exposure to hand tools, equipments, machines and manufacturing setups, a basic course in manufac- turing science remains a core subject for all the branches of engineering. This book covers most of the syllabus of manufacturing processes/technology, workshop technology and work- shop practices for engineering diploma and degree classes prescribed by different universi- ties and state technical boards. While preparing the manuscript of this book, the examina- tion requirements of the engineering students have also been kept in mind. The book is written in very simple language so that even an average student can easily grasp the subject matter. Some comparisons have been given in tabular form and the stress has been given on figures for better understanding of tools, equipments, machines and manufacturing set- ups used in various manufacturing shops. The contents include exposure to bench work and fitting, smithy and forging, sheet metal work, wood and wood working, casting, welding and machine shop practices. At the end of each chapter, a number of questions have been provided for testing the student’s understanding about the concept of the subject. The whole text has been organized in twenty six chapters. The first chapter presents the brief introduction of the subject with modern concepts of manufacturing technology needed for the competitive industrial environment. Chapter 2 provides the necessary details of plant and shop layouts. General industrial safety measures to be followed in various manufacturing shops are described in detail in chapter 3. Chapters 4–8 provide necessary details regarding fundamentals of ferrous materials, non-ferrous materials, melting furnaces, properties and testing of engineering materials and heat treatment of metals and alloys. Chapters 9–13 describe various tools, equipments and processes used in various shops such as carpentry, pattern making, mold and core making, foundry shop. Special casting methods and casting defects are also explained at length. Chapters 14–16 provide basic knowledge of mechanical working of metals. Fundamental concepts related to forging work and other mechanical working processes (hot and cold working) have been discussed at length with neat sketches.  (viii) Chapter 17 provides necessary details of various welding and allied joining processes such as gas welding, arc welding, resistance welding, solid state welding, thermochemical welding, brazing and soldering. Chapters 18–19 describe sheet metal and fitting work in detail. Various kinds of hand tools and equipments used in sheet metal and fitting shops have been described using neat sketches. Chapters 20–24 provide construction and operational details of various machine tools namely lathe, drilling machine, shaper, planer, slotter, and milling machine with the help of neat diagrams. Chapter 25 deals with technique of manufacturing of products with powder metallurgy. The last chapter of the book discusses the basic concepts of quality control and inspection techniques used in manufacturing industries. The author strongly believes that the book would serve not only as a text book for the students of engineering curriculum but would also provide reference material to engineers working in manufacturing industries. Although every care has been taken to check misprints and mistakes, yet it is difficult to claim perfection. Any errors, omissions and suggestions for improvement of this volume will be thankfully acknowledged and included in the next edition. RAJENDER SINGH  ACKNOWLEDGEMENT On completion of the book ‘Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology’, foremost I acknowledge the grace of God; and the blessing of my father late Sh. Sada Ram, my mother Smt. Sona Devi, my respected teacher Prof. G.S. Sekhon and my elders. I wish to acknowledge my sincere thanks to Sh. Shailendra Kumar, lecturer in Hindu College of Engineering, Sonepat, Haryana for assisting me at various stages during preparation of the manuscript. I also acknowledge the students and colleagues whose association has given me the experience of teaching this and related subjects and hence the manuscript of this book could be possible. I am very happy to record my sense of gratitude to my wife Promilla, daugh- ter Swati and son Ravi Kant for their patience, understanding and moral support without which it would have not been possible for me to complete this book. Finally, I am thankful to our publisher, New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers for bringing out the book in a record time and such a nice format. RAJENDER SINGH THIS PAGE IS BLANK  CONTENTS Preface (vii) Acknowledgements (ix) 1. Introduction 1 2. Plant and Shop Layout 17 3. Industrial Safety 26 4. Ferrous Materials 51 5. Non-Ferrous Materials 76 6. Melting Furnaces 102 7. Porperties and Testing of Metals 116 8. Heat Treatment 130 9. Carpentry 152 10. Pattern and Core Making 179 11. Foundry Tools and Equipments 197 12. Mold and Core Making 208 13. Casting 241 14. Forging 260 15. Hot Working of Metals 282 16. Cold Working 293 17. Welding 306 18. Sheet Metal Work 348 19. Fitting 364 20. Metal Cutting 397 21. Lathe Machine 406 22. Drilling Machine 422 23. Shaper, Planer and Slotter 434 24. Milling 447 25. Powder Metallurgy 458 26. Inspection and Quality Control 466 Index 475 THIS PAGE IS BLANK  1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION Manufacturing is the backbone of any industrialized nation. Manufacturing and technical staff in industry must know the various manufacturing processes, materials being processed, tools and equipments for manufacturing different components or products with optimal process plan using proper precautions and specified safety rules to avoid accidents. Beside above, all kinds of the future engineers must know the basic requirements of workshop activities in term of man, machine, material, methods, money and other infrastructure facilities needed to be positioned properly for optimal shop layouts or plant layout and other support services effectively adjusted or located in the industry or plant within a well planned manufacturing organization. The complete understanding of basic manufacturing processes and workshop technology is highly difficult for any one to claim expertise over it. The study deals with several aspects of workshops practices also for imparting the basic working knowledge of the different engineering materials, tools, equipments, manufacturing processes, basic concepts of electro- mechanical controls of machine tools, production criteria’s, characteristics and uses of various testing instruments and measuring or inspecting devices for checking components or products manufactured in various manufacturing shops in an industrial environment. It also describes and demonstrates the use of different hand tools (measuring, marking, holding and supporting tools, cutting etc.), equipments, machinery and various methods of manufacturing that facilitate shaping or forming the different existing raw materials into suitable usable forms. It deals with the study of industrial environment which involves the practical knowledge in the area of ferrous and non ferrous materials, their properties and uses. It should provide the knowledge of basic workshop processes namely bench work and fitting, sheet metal, carpentry, pattern making, mould making, foundry, smithy, forging, metal working and heat treatment, welding, fastening, machine shop, surface finishing and coatings, assembling inspection and quality control. It emphasizes on basic knowledge regarding composition, properties and uses of different raw materials, various production processes, replacement of or improvement over a large number of old processes, new and compact designs, better accuracy in dimensions, quicker methods of production, better surface finishes, more alternatives to the existing materials and tooling systems, automatic and numerical control systems, higher mechanization and greater output. 1 2 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 1.2 SCOPE OF STUDY Today’s competitive manufacturing era of high industrial development and research, is being called the age of mechanization, automation and computer integrated manufacturing. Due to new researches in the manufacturing field, the advancement has come to this extent that every different aspect of this technology has become a full-fledged fundamental and advanced study in itself. This has led to introduction of optimized design and manufacturing of new products. New developments in manufacturing areas are deciding to transfer more skill to the machines for considerably reduction of manual labor. The scope of the subject of workshop technology and manufacturing practices is a extremely wide as it specifies the need of greater care for man, machine, material and other equipments involving higher initial investment by using proper safety rule and precautions. The through and deep knowledge in the course of study of this important subject is therefore becoming essential for all kinds of engineers to have sound foundation in their profession. Therefore the course of study of this subject provides a good theoretical background and a sound practical knowledge to the engineering students and workshop staff. One should also be aware of the following terms for better understanding of the scope of the study 1.3 MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING Manufacturing is derived from the Latin word manufactus, means made by hand. In modern context it involves making products from raw material by using various processes, by making use of hand tools, machinery or even computers. It is therefore a study of the processes required to make parts and to assemble them in machines. Process Engineering, in its application to engineering industries, shows how the different problems related to development of various machines may be solved by a study of physical, chemical and other laws governing the manufacturing process. The study of manufacturing reveals those parameters which can be most efficiently being influenced to increase production and raise its accuracy. Advance manufacturing engineering involves the following concepts— 1. Process planning. 2. Process sheets. 3. Route sheets. 4. Tooling. 5. Cutting tools, machine tools (traditional, numerical control (NC), and computerized numerical control (CNC). 6. Jigs and Fixtures. 7. Dies and Moulds. 8. Manufacturing Information Generation. 9. CNC part programs. 10. Robot programmers. 11. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS), Group Technology (GT) and Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM). 1.4 PRODUCTION PROCESS It is the process followed in a plant for converting semi- finished products or raw materials into finished products or raw materials into finished products. The art of converting raw  Introduction 3 material into finished goods with application of different types of tools, equipments, machine tools, manufacturing set ups and manufacturing processes, is known as production. Generally there are three basic types of production system that are given as under. 1. Job production 2. Batch production 3. Mass production Job production comprises of an operator or group of operators to work upon a single job and complete it before proceeding to the next similar or different job. The production requirement in the job production system is extremely low. It requires fixed type of layout for developing same products. Manufacturing of products (less in number say 200 to 800) with variety of similar parts with very little variation in size and shape is called batch production. Whenever the production of batch is over, the same manufacturing facility is used for production of other batch product or items. The batch may be for once or of periodical type or of repeated kinds after some irregular interval. Such manufacturing concepts are leading to GT and FMS technology. Manufacturing of products in this case requires process or functional layout. Where as mass production involves production of large number of identical products (say more than 50000) that needs line layout type of plant layout which is highly rigid type and involves automation and huge amount of investment in special purpose machines to increase the production. 1.5 PROCESS PLANNING Process planning consists of selection of means of production (machine-tools, cutting tools, presses, jigs, fixtures, measuring tools etc.), establishing the efficient sequence of operation, determination of changes in form, dimension or finish of the machine tools in addition to the specification of the actions of the operator. It includes the calculation of the machining time, as well as the required skill of the operator. It also establishes an efficient sequence of manufacturing steps for minimizing material handling which ensures that the work will be done at the minimum cost and at maximum productivity. The basic concepts of process planning are generally concerned with the machining only. Although these concepts may also be extended to other processes such as casting, forging, sheet metal forming, assembling and heat treatment as well. 1.6 MANUFACTURING PROCESS Manufacturing process is that part of the production process which is directly concerned with the change of form or dimensions of the part being produced. It does not include the transportation, handling or storage of parts, as they are not directly concerned with the changes into the form or dimensions of the part produced. 1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF MANUFACTURING PROCESSES For producing of products materials are needed. It is therefore important to know the characteristics of the available engineering materials. Raw materials used manufacturing of products, tools, machines and equipments in factories or industries are extracted from ores. The ores are suitably converted the metal into a molten form by reducing or refining processes 4 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology in foundries. This molten metal is poured into moulds for providing commercial castings, called ingots. Such ingots are then processed in rolling mills to obtain market form of material supply in form of bloom, billets, slabs and rods. These forms of material supply are further subjected to various manufacturing processes for getting usable metal products of different shapes and sizes in various manufacturing shops. All these processes used in manufacturing concern for changing the ingots into usable products may be classified into six major groups as primary shaping processes, secondary machining processes, metal forming processes, joining processes, surface finishing processes and processes effecting change in properties. These are discussed as under. 1.7.1 Primary Shaping Processes Primary shaping processes are manufacturing of a product from an amorphous material. Some processes produces finish products or articles into its usual form whereas others do not, and require further working to finish component to the desired shape and size. Castings need re-melting of scrap and defective ingots in cupola or in some other melting furnace and then pouring of the molten metal into sand or metallic moulds to obtain the castings. Thus the intricate shapes can be manufactured. Typical examples of the products that are produced by casting process are machine beds, automobile engines, carburetors, flywheels etc. The parts produced through these processes may or may not require to under go further operations. Some of the important primary shaping processes is: (1) Casting, (2) Powder metallurgy, (3) Plastic technology, (4) Gas cutting, (5) Bending and (6) Forging. 1.7.2. Secondary or Machining Processes As large number of components require further processing after the primary processes. These components are subjected to one or more number of machining operations in machine shops, to obtain the desired shape and dimensional accuracy on flat and cylindrical jobs. Thus, the jobs undergoing these operations are the roughly finished products received through primary shaping processes. The process of removing the undesired or unwanted material from the workpiece or job or component to produce a required shape using a cutting tool is known as machining. This can be done by a manual process or by using a machine called machine tool (traditional machines namely lathe, milling machine, drilling, shaper, planner, slotter). In many cases these operations are performed on rods, bars and flat surfaces in machine shops. These secondary processes are mainly required for achieving dimensional accuracy and a very high degree of surface finish. The secondary processes require the use of one or more machine tools, various single or multi-point cutting tools (cutters), job holding devices, marking and measuring instruments, testing devices and gauges etc. for getting desired dimensional control and required degree of surface finish on the workpieces. The example of parts produced by machining processes includes hand tools machine tools instruments, automobile parts, nuts, bolts and gears etc. Lot of material is wasted as scrap in the secondary or machining process. Some of the common secondary or machining processes are— (1) Turning, (2) Threading, (3) Knurling, (4) Milling, (5) Drilling, (6) Boring, (7) Planning, (8) Shaping, (9) Slotting, (10) Sawing, (11) Broaching, (12) Hobbing, (13) Grinding, (14) Gear cutting, (15) Thread cutting and (16) Unconventional machining processes namely machining with Numerical Control (NC) machines tools or Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines tools using ECM, LBM, AJM, USM setups etc.  Introduction 5 1.7.3 Metal Forming Processes Forming processes encompasses a wide variety of techniques, which make use of suitable force, pressure or stresses, like compression, tension and shear or their combination to cause a permanent deformation of the raw material to impart required shape. These processes are also known as mechanical working processes and are mainly classified into two major categories i.e., hot working processes and cold working processes. In these processes, no material is removed; however it is deformed and displaced using suitable stresses like compression, tension, and shear or combined stresses to cause plastic deformation of the materials to produce required shapes. Such processes lead to production of directly usable articles which include kitchen utensils, rods, wires, rails, cold drink bottle caps, collapsible tubes etc. Some of the important metal forming processes are: Hot working Processes (1) Forging, (2) Rolling, (3) Hot spinning, (4) Extrusion, (5) Hot drawing and (6) Hot spinning. Cold working processes (1) Cold forging, (2) Cold rolling, (3) Cold heading, (4) Cold drawing, (5) Wire drawing, (6) Stretch forming, (7) Sheet metal working processes such as piercing, punching, lancing, notching, coining, squeezing, deep drawing, bending etc. 1.7.4 Joining Processes Many products observed in day-to-day life, are commonly made by putting many parts together may be in subassembly. For example, the ball pen consists of a body, refill, barrel, cap, and refill operating mechanism. All these parts are put together to form the product as a pen. More than 800 parts are put together to make various subassemblies and final assembly of car or aero-plane. A complete machine tool may also require to assemble more than 100 parts in various sub assemble or final assembly. The process of putting the parts together to form the product, which performs the desired function, is called assembly. An assemblage of parts may require some parts to be joined together using various joining processes. But assembly should not be confused with the joining process. Most of the products cannot be manufactured as single unit they are manufactured as different components using one or more of the above manufacturing processes, and these components are assembled to get the desired product. Joining processes are widely used in fabrication and assembly work. In these process two or more pieces of metal parts are joined together to produce desired shape and size of the product. The joining processes are carried out by fusing, pressing, rubbing, riveting, screwing or any other means of assembling. These processes are used for assembling metal parts and in general fabrication work. Such requirements usually occur when several pieces are to be joined together to fabricate a desired structure of products. These processes are used developing steam or water-tight joints. Temporary, semi-permanent or permanent type of fastening to make a good joint is generally created by these processes. Temporary joining of components can be achieved by use of nuts, screws and bolts. Adhesives are also used to make temporary joints. Some of the important and common joining processes are: (1) Welding (plastic or fusion), (2) Brazing, (3) Soldering, (4) Riveting, (5) Screwing, (6) Press fitting, (7) Sintering, (8) Adhesive bonding, (9) Shrink fitting, (10) Explosive welding, (11) Diffusion welding, (12) Keys and cotters joints, (13) Coupling and (14) Nut and bolt joints. 1.7.5 Surface Finishing Processes Surface finishing processes are utilized for imparting intended surface finish on the surface of a job. By imparting a surface finishing process, dimension of part is not changed functionally; 6 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology either a very negligible amount of material is removed from the certain material is added to the surface of the job. These processes should not be misunderstood as metal removing processes in any case as they are primarily intended to provide a good surface finish or a decorative or protective coating on to the metal surface. Surface cleaning process also called as a surface finishing process. Some of the commonly used surface finishing processes are: (1) Honing, (2) Lapping, (3) Super finishing, (4) Belt grinding, (5) Polishing, (6) Tumbling, (7) Organic finishes, (8) Sanding, (9) deburring, (10) Electroplating, (11) Buffing, (12) Metal spraying, (13) Painting, (14) Inorganic coating, (15) Anodizing, (16) Sheradising, (17) Parkerizing, (18) Galvanizing, (19) Plastic coating, (20) Metallic coating, (21) Anodizing and (22) Sand blasting. 1.7.6 Processes Effecting Change in Properties Processes effecting change in properties are generally employed to provide certain specific properties to the metal work pieces for making them suitable for particular operations or use. Some important material properties like hardening, softening and grain refinement are needed to jobs and hence are imparted by heat treatment. Heat treatments affect the physical properties and also make a marked change in the internal structure of the metal. Similarly the metal forming processes effect on the physical properties of work pieces Similarly shot peening process, imparts fatigue resistance to work pieces. A few such commonly used processes are given as under: (1) Annealing, (2) Normalising, (3) Hardening, (4) Case hardening, (5) Flame hardening, (6) Tempering, (7) Shot peeing, (8) Grain refining and (9) Age hardening. In addition, some allied manufacturing activities are also required to produce the finished product such as measurement and assembly. 1.8. PRODUCT SIMPLIFICATION AND STANDARDISATION The technique of simplification and standardization of product is closely inter-related that leads to higher efficiency in production, better quality and reduced production cost. Simplification is a process of determining limited number of grades, types and sizes of a components or products or parts in order to achieve better quality control, minimize waste, simplify production and, thus, reduce cost of production. By eliminating unnecessary varieties, sizes and designs, simplification leads to manufacture identical components or products for interchangeability and maintenance purposes of assembly of parts. Standardization is the important step towards interchangeable manufacture, increased output and higher economy. The technique of standardization comprises of determining optimal manufacturing processes, identifying the best possible engineering material, and allied techniques for the manufacture of a product and adhering to them very strictly so long as the better standards for all these are not identified. Thus definite standards are set up for a specified product with respect to its quality, required equipment, machinery, labor, material, process of manufacture and the cost of production. The identified standard with time for a specified product should never be taken as final for ever because improvement is always possible. It must accommodate the outcome of all the new researches in the manufacturing areas in order to keep pace with increasing global competition. Improvements over the existing standards in all respects should always be welcomed. The different standards prevailing in different industries may be of the types of managerial, design, manufacturing and technical needs. Managerial standards are applicable to administrative functions within industry. These include the company policy, accounting procedures, personnel policies, performance evaluation, control of expenditures, safety aspects,  Introduction 7 security procedures and regulations, etc. where as design, manufacturing and technical standards are needed for manufacturing concepts of the industry. These include design and manufacturing techniques, practices, materials and parts, supplies, methods of testing, drafting method, abbreviations and symbols, specifications and nomenclature, etc. 1.9 INSPECTION AND QUALITY CONTROL A product is manufactured to perform desired functions. It must have a specified dimension such as length, width, height, diameter and surface smoothness to perform or accomplish its intended function. It means that each product requires a defined size, shape and other characteristics as per the design specifications. For manufacturing the product to the specified size, the dimensions should be measured and checked during and after the manufacturing process. It involves measuring the size, smoothness and other features, in addition to their checking. These activities are called measurement and inspection respectively. In the era of globalization, every industry must pay sufficient attention towards maintaining quality because it is another important requirement or function of a production unit. If a manufacturing concern wants to survive for longer time and to maintain its reputation among the users, it should under all condition apply enough efforts not only to keep up the standard of quality of its products once established but to improve upon the same from time to time. For this, every manufacturing concern must maintain a full-fledged inspection and quality control department which inspects the product at different stages of its production. Vigilant inspection of raw materials and products depends upon the entire process of standardization. The production unit of manufacturing concern must produce identical products. However a minor variation may be allowed to a predetermined amount in their finished dimensions of the products. The two extremities of dimensions of the product are called limits. All the parts of which the finished dimensions lie within these limits are acceptable parts. This facilitates easy and quicker production, easy inspection, requires less skill on the part of worker and accommodates a slight inaccuracy in the machine as well, resulting in an over all reduction in the production cost of the part. 1.10 MECHANIZATION AND AUTOMATION Mechanization means something is done or operated by machinery and not by hand. Mechanization of the manufacturing means is milestone oriented trend towards minimizing the human efforts to the extent of its possibility, by adopting mechanical and electrical means or methods for automating the different manufacturing processes. Such a trend may be in the area of automating and mechanizing the processes of material handling, loading and unloading of components, actual operations performed on the job or transportation, etc. But, no feedback is provided by the process, operation or machinery. Extension of mechanization of the production process is termed as automation and it is controlled by a closed loop system in which feedback is provided by the sensors. It controls the operations of different machines automatically. The automatic control may be applied for some operations or for all the operations of a machine or group of machines. Accordingly the machine will be known as semi-automatic or fully automatic. The term was identified shortly after the World War II at the Ford Motor Company to describe the automatic handling of materials and parts between the process operations. The word ‘automation’ is derived from the Greek word automatos meaning self-acting. Automation can also be defined as the process of following a predetermined sequence of operations with little or no human intervention, using specialized equipment and devices that 8 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology perform and control the manufacturing process. Automation is a word that has many meanings in the industry today. Automatic machines of all kinds existed long before the term automation was conceived. But, it should be noted that all automatic machines do not come under the category of automation. Automation is a technology concerned with the application mechanical, electronic, and computer based systems to operate and control production. Every machine should involve some automation, may be to a lesser degree or to a higher extent to which is mainly governed by economic considerations. Automation means a system in which many or all of the processes in the production, movement, and inspection of parts and material are performed under control by the self-operating devices called controllers. This implies that the essential elements of automation comprise of mechanization, sensing, feedback, and control devices. The reasons why one should go for automation are: 1. Increased productivity 2. Reduced cost of labor and dependence on labor shortages 3. Improved quality 4. Reduced in-process inventory 5. Reduced manufacturing time 6. Reduced dependence on operator skills 7. Increased safety or reduced risk of humans. Automation can be classified into three categories, viz. 1. Fixed automation 2. Programmable automation 3. Flexible automation. 1.10.1 Fixed Automation It is also known as hard automation which is utilized to produce a standardized product such as gears, nuts and bolts, etc. Even though the operating conditions can be changed, fixed automation is used for very large quantity production of one or few marginally different components. Highly specialized tools, devices, equipment, special purpose machine tools, are utilized to produce a product or a component of a product very efficiently and at high production rates with as low unit costs as possible relative to other alternative methods of manufacturing. 1.10.2 Programmable Automation In programmable automation, one can change the design of the product or even change the product by changing the program. Such technique is highly useful for the low quantity production of large number of different components. The equipments used for the manufacturing are designed to be flexible or programmable. The production normally carried out in batches. 1.10.3 Flexible Automation There is a third category possible between fixed automation and programmable automation that is called flexible automation using Computer Aided Design (CAD) and Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) activities. This is also called as flexible manufacturing system (FMS). It allows producing different products on the same equipment in any order or mix. One important example of programmable automation, in discrete manufacturing, is numerical control. Robot is another example of programmable automation. Robot being integral part of  Introduction 9 FMS and Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system can do a large number of manufacturing tasks for replacing the human labor. In the present globalized manufacturing scenario, the advancements of hardware and software concepts using the mechatronics for fast mechanization and automation of manufacturing processes have become essential to be incorporated in the manufacturing areas. 1.11 COMPUTER AIDED MANUFACTURING (CAM) The computer aided manufacturing implies manufacturing itself, aided or controlled by computers. In a wider sense, it denotes all the activities in the manufacturing environment like use of computers in inventory control, project management, material requirement planning, data acquisition, testing and quality control. Improved reliability in view of the better manufacturing methods and controls at the manufacturing stage, the products thus manufactured as well as of the manufacturing system would be highly reliable. Since most of the components of a CAM system would include integrated diagnostics and monitoring facilities, they would require less maintenance compared to the conventional manufacturing methods. Because of the Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machines used in production and the part programs being made by the stored geometry from the design stage, the scrap level would be reduced to the minimum possible and almost no rework would be necessary. Since all the information and controlling functions are attempted with the help of the computer, a better management control on the manufacturing activity is possible. All the above advantages when properly translated, would mean a lower total cost and consequently, higher final earnings. Therefore any manufacturing activity in a production unit (job shop production or mass scale manufacture) can get the benefits of Computer Aided Manufacturing. However, better results can be obtained when the design and manufacturing activities are properly integrated. Also, when there is a large variety of products or minor changes required in the existing production programme, CAM can easily manage the necessary changes or alterations. Following are the main advantages of using CAM. 1. Greater design freedom Any changes that are required in design can be incorporated at any design stage without worrying about any delays, since there would hardly be any in an integrated CAM environment. 2. Increased productivity In view of the fact that the total manufacturing activity is completely organized through the computer, it would be possible to increase the productivity of the plant. 3. Greater operating flexibility CAM enhances the flexibility in manufacturing methods and changing of product lines. 4. Shorter lead time Lead times in manufacturing would be greatly reduced. The integration of CAD and CAM systems is called Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM) system. The role of computer in manufacturing may be in two major groups namely computer monitoring and control of the manufacturing process and manufacturing support applications, which deal essentially with the preparations for act of manufacturing and post manufacture operations. Computers are used in controlling machine tools and other material handling equipments. 10 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 1.12 KINDS OF PRODUCTION SYSTEMS The choice of production type dictates the machine requirements, organizational system to a large extent, layout planning and inventory subsystems. Three main types of production are job, batch and flow or process production. The simplest way is to classify based on production and processes by lot size, namely single unit production, small lot production, moderate lot production, large lot production, and continuous production. The second classification comprises three categories, namely small size production of a large variety of products, medium-scale production of a limited range of products, and a large-scale production of a small variety of products. Obviously, this method is related to the number of product types and production lot sizes, and is an effective means of analyzing modern production management. The third classification is related to the size of the production system expressed through the number of employees or the amount of fixed assets involved, namely small production unit employing less than 30 employees, medium-small having 30 to 300 employees, medium with 301 to 2,000 employees and large with 2001 to 15,000 employees, and a giant corporation employing more than 15,000 employees Job shop production deals the manufacture of very small lots, often of single jobs. This may be required in special situations for the purpose of proving a design, making prototypes, in tool making or for special purpose applications. In view of the very small lot, no special purpose machines or tooling can be economically justified. Hence, the manufacturing has to be carried on with the general purpose machines and tooling, which is a very lengthy and often an error prone process. 1.13 MANUFACTURING SYSTEM Manufacturing basically implies making of goods or articles and providing services to meet the needs of mankind. It creates value by useful application of physical and mental-labor in the process. It is a chain of interrelated activities of production process and other support services activities of an manufacturing environment such as order processing, product design, design and manufacturing of tools, die, mould, jigs, fixtures and gauges, selection of material, planning, managing and maintaining control of the processes, production, and reliable quality of processed product in a systematic and sequential manner with proper coordination, cooperation and integration of the whole manufacturing system that will lead to economical production and effective marketing of proposed product in the minimum possible time. It is, therefore, evident that manufacturing today is not a one man activity as it was in the initial stages, wherein all the physical and mental inputs were applied by a single craftsman. These days it has become totally a team work which consists of several components interacting together in a dynamic manner. This entire domain of manufacturing is known as Manufacturing System, which takes the required inputs and delivers the products for the customer. It is, therefore, evident that manufacturing today is not a one man activity as it was in the preliminary stages, wherein all the physical and mental inputs were provided by a single workman. Today it is a team work which consists of several components interacting together in a dynamic manner to provide the required physical and mental inputs at appropriate stages to impart desired results. This entire domain of manufacturing is known as Manufacturing System, which takes the required inputs and delivers the products for the customer. Manufacturing system requires a large number of activities, few independent and rests mostly interrelated. The manufacturing activities in a manufacturing system jointly contribute  Introduction 11 towards economic and qualitatively acceptable production of desired articles in minimum possible time. As per the need of the customer, the products are identified and their demands are determined roughly for market forecast by considering present and future competition. Products that may render the desired service over its expected life satisfactorily as per requirement of customers are identified in terms of their demand, conceived and developed for securing orders by the sales department. Once the product design activity is over and the design finalized from all angles, functional, aesthetic, material selection, safety, economy, etc., it is followed by preparation of production drawings of the product assembly and its components including a bill of materials. This is the stage where a make or buy decision has to be taken in order to decide as to which components are to be bought from outside and which are to be manufactured within the concern. It is followed by process planning i.e. selection of the best process and an its parameters, design of jigs, fixtures and dies, selection of tooling, programming of tool path as per need, for the components to be produced in-house. An important activity in process planning within the organization is also to involve latest research and development findings, through which the old processes are improved and new one’s are developed in order to ensure better quality and economic production. The interaction of different manufacturing activities in a manufacturing system can also be further enhanced by the use of computer and hence leading CIM. The real manufacturing or production activity is carried out on the shop. The layout of the shop floor has a significant influence on the tools required to be coordinated in order to an economical and high quality production of various components. It should be such that it ensures timely movement of raw materials, dies moulds, jigs and fixtures and finished components, adequate safety to men, material and machinery, enables timely inspection and quality control and minimizes handling time for material and parts, etc. During actual manufacturing a lot of different activities are called management function. Various engineers play an important role in the organizational function of a manufacturing concern. They are required to ensure proper movement of the material, tools and parts as per their specialized jobs in industry. 1.14 PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT A product development has to go through the following concepts of product engineering which are given as under. Product functions 1. Product specifications 2. Conceptual design 3. Ergonomics and aesthetics 4. Standards 5. Detailed design 6. Prototype development 7. Testing 8. Simulation 9. Design for manufacture 10. Design for assembly 11. Drafting. Now let us consider the manufacturing environment of a given product. How does the product idea originate. Market forces determine the need for a product. Expertise on the part 12 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology of the company estimates the likely demand and probable profitability and decides on the best mode of designing and manufacturing the desired product. Traditionally, after the design of the product, the part prints are released for production. The production engineering section first considers the feasibility of production of the product. Having ascertained its feasibility, process planning is done so that the product can be manufactured at the lowest possible cost. Any redesign that is needed for improving the producibility of the product without compromising on its functionality would have to be done at this stage. Having decided on the process plan for manufacture, the necessary actions are undertaken for its implementation. These are making of the tooling required, acquiring of new equipment or tools, procurement of the raw materials, releasing of the detailed operational instructions to the shop floor, etc. The conventional methods of manufacturing are generally inefficient and dependent on operator skills. These methods consume more time, have high costs, and give poor accuracy. Product design is an activity which needs to be well organized and take into account all influences that are likely to be responsible for the success of the product under development. A product here means a single component which is functional in itself like a wrench or an assembly of a large number of components all of which will contribute to the functioning of the part such as an automobile engine. The complexity of the design process certainly increases with the number and diversity of components present in the final part. Since there are such a large number of influencing factors, it is impossible to specify a design procedure for each component. Here we are interested in developing some common guidelines and steps that are needed to proceed for a successful product design and manufacture. From the above discussion it can inferred that products can be manufactured by more than one processes. Therefore several alternatives for manufacturing products are available. The selection of a suitable process is depended upon the factors including volume of production, properties of the components, technical viability of process, economy involved and desired quality. Based upon the volume of product the manufacturing activity can be identified in terms of job shop production, batch production and mass production 1.15 COMPUTERS IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Factors governing increased productivity, more accuracy, greater flexibility of shapes, and reduced manufacturing costs are forcing the manufacturing concerns to use computers in design, manufacturing and other allied functions of industrial activities. With an increase in the need for quality manufacturing along with the factors such as short lead time and short product lives and increasing consumer awareness as regards the quality of the product, it is becoming increasingly important for the manufacturers to initiate steps to achieve all these. The developments in microelectronics in the recent past have made higher computational ability available at a low cost. Therefore, it becomes imperative that manufacturing takes advantage of the availability of low cost and also using yet more powerful computers. Computers have been in use in manufacturing industries since 1960. Initially they were in use only in supportive functions such as inventory control purchase accounting, etc. In to day’s time, computer applications have progressed considerably in all areas of design and manufacturing involving CAD and CAM. This however needs to be emphasized that all the benefits of CAD and CAM can be achieved only if these two important functions are effectively interfaced. This interfacing is known as CAD/CAM. It involves the flow of information in both the directions. With the result the parts and assemblies are designed keeping in view the limitations and  Introduction 13 capabilities of the processes and materials. Consequently, newer and superior products can be produced more quickly and at lower costs. Today, computers are not only used in manufacturing but they play also an important role in all manufacturing related activities such as business or financial management, factory level production management, CIM technologies, CAD, feature and solid modelling, and CAM, manufacturing information, manufacturing system. The important sub-activities of industrial environment have been identified to support with the use of computer in the manufacturing industries. These are given as under: 1. Business or Financial Management 1. Costing 2. Sales and Marketing 3. Purchase Order Control 4. Vendors 5. Subcontracting 6. Personnel. 2. Factory Level Production management 1. Planning 2. Production Management 3. Manufacturing production scheduling (MPS) 4. Material requirement planning (MRP) 5. Just in time (JIT) 6. Bill of Materials 7. Capacity Planning 8. Inventory Control. 3. CIM Technologies 1. Computer Networks 2. System Design and Analysis 3. Distributed Processing 4. Database Management Manufacturing 5. Modelling and Simulation 6. Expert Systems 7. Quality Engineering. 4. Computer Aided Design (CAD) This area is also known Feature and Solid Modelling 1. Variational and Parametric 2. Modelling 3. Computer Graphics 4. Graphic Standards 14 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 5. Inter-graphics exchange specification (IGES) 6. Data exchange file (DXF) 7. Manufacturing Robot Programming 8. Design Analyses Tools 9. Programming 10. Finite element modelling (FEM) 11. Finite element analysis (FEA) 12. Simulation 13. Mechanisms 14. Test and Analysis 15. Design Tools Mechanical 16. Hydraulic, Electronics, etc. 5. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) This involves activities related to manufacturing information and manufacturing system which are given as under— Manufacturing Information 1. Generation 2. Process Planning 3. Production Planning 4. Computer numerical control (CNC) part Programming 5. Robot Programming 6. Coordinate measuring machine (CMM) Programming. Manufacturing System 1. Production Activity 2. Machining 3. Assembly 4. Material Handling 5. Storage 6. Production Control 7. Loading 8. Scheduling 9. Balancing 10. Capacity Planning 11. Quality Control. One of the most important components for getting various benefits associated with computer applications in manufacturing is the common databases associated with all aspects of manufacturing. In fact, all the modules in the CAM would actually be sharing the database created in any module. Any module would be able to modify the data as required for that  Introduction 15 particular application. This approach reduces the work involved in maintaining the product database and at the same time includes the latest modifications for any aspect related to manufacturing. In contrast to the common database approach, it is possible that sometimes individual modules in the production aspects may be taken from different vendors. In this case care need to be taken that information is properly transmitted between the modules and the data updating in all the modules takes place properly and at the right time. Some of above mentioned manufacturing activities are controlled by computers. These activities are commonly identified using the following terms. 1. Computer Aided Design (CAD) 2. Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) 3. Computer Aided Design And Drafting (CADD) 4. Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP) 5. Computer Aided Tool Design (CATD) 6. Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) 7. Computer Aided Numerical Control (NC) Part Programming 8. Computer Aided Scheduling 9. Computer Aided Material Requirement Planning, etc. 10. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) 11. Group Technology (GT) 12. Computer aided Testing (CAT). 1.16 QUESTIONS 1. How do you classify the manufacturing processes? 2. Distinguish between ‘primary’ and ‘secondary’ processes? 3. Discuss primary shaping processes. Give also a brief account of the primary shaping processes. 4. Explain the secondary or machining processes. Give also a brief account of these processes. 5. Describe and name the types of joining processes, surface finishing operations and the processes employed for changing the properties of manufactured components. 6. Write a short note on assembly process. 7. Write short notes on: (a) Simplification, (b) Standardization, (c) Inspection and quality control, (d) Interchangeability, (e) Mechanization, (f) Automation, (g) Mechatronics. 8. What do you understand from the terms Manufacturing, Process plan, Maintenance? 9. Explain the term ‘Manufacturing System’. What all it encompasses and how an integrated approach is made for making an economical and competitive product? Describe how the use of computers helps in increasing manufacturing efficiency. 10. Explain the terms CAD, CAM, NC, CAD/CAM, MRP, FMS and CIM? 11. Write a short note on Group Technology? 12. Explain the influence exerted by the computers on the manufacturing scene? 13. Briefly explain the conventional process of the product cycle in the conventional manufacturing environment. 16 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 14. What are the functions that get benefited by the use of computers in design and manufacturing functions? 15. Briefly explain the various automation aspects used in manufacturing activities. 16. Write down the advantages which can be gained by the adoption of CAD? 17. Describe the advantages which can be gained by the adoption of CAM? 18. Write down the advantages which can be gained by the adoption of FMS? 19. Write down the advantages which can be gained by the adoption of manufacturing production scheduling (MPS)? 20. Write down the advantages which can be gained by the adoption of Material Requirement Planning (MRP)? 21. Explain the main advantages which can be gained by the adoption of CIM?  2 CHAPTER PLANT AND SHOP LAYOUT 2.1 INTRODUCTION In a manufacturing organization, a job to be manufactured spends most of the time in moving and waiting. For reduction of this moving and waiting time of jobs/parts, it is necessary to have proper layout and proper scheduling procedure. Plant layout specifies the position of the overall arrangement of the various facilities such as equipments, material, manpower, materials handling, service facilities, and passage required to facilitate efficient operation of production system of the plant within the area of the site selected previously. Shop layout in manufacturing plant also forms an integral part of factory planning or plant layout. Plant layout begins with the design the position of the factory building and goes up to the location and movement of a work table of the machine. All the manufacturing facilities such as equipments, raw materials, machinery, tools, fixtures, workers, etc. are given a proper place in each shop of the manufacturing plant. Plant layout of an industrial organization plays an important role in scientific management and is defined as : “Plant layout is such a systematic and efficient functional arrangement of various departments, machines, tools, equipment and other supports services of an industrial organization that will facilitate the smooth processing of the proposed or undertaken product in the most effective, most efficient and most economical manner in the minimum possible time” Plant layout of an industrial organization comprises of all the aspects connected with the industrial enterprise, viz., grounds, buildings, machinery, equipment, departments, methods of manufacturing, factory services, material handling, flow of production, working conditions, hygiene, labor and shipment of goods, etc. It does not necessarily mean planning a new enterprise only. However, it also involves minor improvements, here and there, in the existing layout, expansion of the exiting plant, re-layout of the existing plant and layout of a new proposed plant. In a best possible plant layout, material handling and transportation is minimized and efficiently controlled. Bottlenecks and points of congestions are eliminated so that the raw material and semi-finished goods move fast from one work station to another. Work stations are designed suitably to facilitate the smooth processing of the proposed or undertaken product in the most effective, most efficient and most economical manner in the minimum possible time. Optimal spaces are allocated to production centers and service centers. The primary goal of plant layout is to maximize profits by setting up the best possible arrangements of all plant facilities to the maximum advantage of reducing the cost of production of the proposed product. 17 18 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 2.2. OBJECTIVES OF GOOD PLANT LAYOUT Good plant layout comprises of best possible arrangement of the buildings, men, machine and materials for processing a under taken product. The main objectives of a good plant layout involves minimum material movement, smooth flow of the product in the plant, full utilization of the space of the plant, provide adequate safety and satisfaction to the plant workers, evolve sufficient flexibility in the arrangement of the above factors so as to suit the minor future changes, if any and facilitates an effective supervision. It helps to integrate all the above factors in such a way that the best compromise and coordination among them is achieved. The movements of workers and manufacturing staffs within the plant are minimized. Waiting time of the semi-finished and finished products should be reduced to the minimum. Working conditions as far as possible should be safer and better for the satisfaction of the workers. There should be an increased flexibility for changes in product design and for future expansion. There should be full utilization of whole space of the shop and plant layout. The work methods and reduced production cycle times should be improved and the plant maintenance must be simpler. There should be increased productivity and better product quality with reduced capital cost. A good layout facilitates materials to move through the plant at the desired speed with the minimum possible cost. 2.3. IMPORTANT FACTORS FOR INSTALLATION OF A PLANT The important factors while planning for installation of plant include availability of space, power, water, raw material, good climatic conditions, good means of communication, ancillaries, low local taxes and similar other economic considerations, marketing facilities for the planned product, space for process disposal and skilled and unskilled labor locally. One has to keep in mind the possibilities of utilization and sale of the process wastes and by-products of the planned industry. Decision of manufacturing new product, financial and other aids, facilities for expansion presence of related industries, local by laws and securities, hospitality are also important factors which one must keep in mind for location of an enterprise. After finalizing the size and location of the plant, the next step is to design the inner layout of the plant to plan out the sequence of different shops and their locations accordingly to specifications of material and product, manufacturing processes, type of production, material handling facilities, system and facilities for storing, inter-dependability of one shop over the other, links among various shops, service facilities and lighting and ventilation. Next, the internal arrangement of the above mentioned infracturctral facilities of different shops are identified. This identification is termed as shop layout. The main factors namely size and type of equipment, number of machines to be installed, floor area required for working on each machine, power requirements for the machines, requirements of factory services, sequence of operations to be followed, visibility to all the machines for proper supervision and control, type of drive used, safe working conditions, provision of stores within the shop, i.e. for tools, instruments, finished parts and consumable materials, etc. affects the layout of the plant. A good plant layout should meet the following basic requirement: 1. Integration of manufacturing centre facilities in terms of man, machine and material. 2. Movements of production personnel and material handling should be minimized. 3. Smooth and continuous flow of production or manufacturing work with least possible bottlenecks and congestion points. 4. Floor space utilization should be optimum as for as possible.  Plant and Shop Layout 19 5. Working place should be free from pollution and safe working conditions should prevail in each shop of the plant. 6. The handling of raw material, semi finished and finished product should be should be tackled optimally and effectively 7. Plant layout and shop layouts must be flexible to facilitate changes in production requirements 8. There should be better working environment in term of proper light, ventilation and other amenities such as drinking water and toilets for welfare for the manufacturing personnel 2.4. MERITS OF A GOOD PLANT LAYOUT The main advantages of a good plant layout involve effectively and economical utilization of entire floor space of the plant, increased rate of production, reduced men and machine hours per unit of production, reduced material handling, minimal production delays, effective utilization of men, machinery, material and other factory support services, reduced overall production time, elimination of large amount of paper work, significant reduction in the indirect expenses, considerable reduction in inventory work for material, promote effective supervision, facilitate easy flow of men, tools and material, promote flexibility in arrangement to suit the future changes, promotes better planning and effective control, facilitates better and easier maintenance of plant and machinery, provides safer and healthier working conditions thereby improving the morale of the workmen, provides the material as well as psychological satisfaction to the workers and enhance overall efficiency of the plant. The major merits of a good plant layout are given as under: 1. Reduced men and machine hours per unit of production, 2. Effectively and economical utilization of entire floor space of the plant, 3. Work flow is smooth and continuous 4. Work in process inventory is less 5. Production control is better 6. Manufacturing time is less 7. Relatively less floor area is required 8. Material handling is less. 2.5. TYPES OF LAYOUTS The fulfilling the objectives of a good layout as per yearly product requirement and product types, the layouts are classified into four major categories namely fixed or position layout, line or product layout, process or functional layout and combination or group layout. Each kind of layouts is explained with respective merit, demerits and application as under. 2.5.1 Fixed or Position Layout Fixed or position layout is also known as project layout. A typical fixed layout is shown in Fig. 2.1. In this type of layout the major part of an assembly or material remains at a fixed position. All its accessories, auxiliary material, machinery, equipment needed, tools required and the labor are brought to the fixed site to work. Thus, the product by virtue of its bulk 20 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology or weight remains at one location. Therefore the location of the major assembly, semi assembly component and material is not disturbed till the product is ready for dispatch. This layout is suitable when one or a few pieces of an item are to be manufactured and material forming or treating operation requires only tools or simple machines. This layout is highly preferable when the cost of moving the major piece of material is high and the responsibility of product quality by one skilled workman or group of skilled workers is expected. This type of layout is mainly adopted for extremely large items manufactured in very small quantity such as ships, aero planes, boilers, reactors etc. It main merit of this layout is the minimum movement of men, material, and tooling during manufacturing process. This layout is high flexible as the type of product and the related processes can be easily changed without any change in the layout. The merit and demerit of this type of layout is given as under. M en Finish ed Too ls W orkp la ce p rod uct to S tore C o m p on en ts Fig. 2.1 Typical project layout Merits Its main merits are— 1. Layout is highly flexible for varieties of products having intermittent demand as the type of product and the related processes can be easily altered without any change in the layout. 2. There is a minimum movement of men, material, and tooling during manufacturing process. 3. The material is drastically reduced. 4. Highly skilled operators are required to complete the work at one point and responsibility for quality is fixed on one person or the assembly crew. 5. Every personnel of manufacturing team is responsible for quality work for manufacturing the product. Demerits The major demerits of this layout are 1. The cost of equipment handling is very high. 2. Labors and equipments are difficult to utilize fully. 3. It is limited to large items only. Applications This type of layout is mostly adopted for extremely large items manufactured in very small quantity such as ships, aero planes, aircraft, locomotive, ship assembly shops, shipyards, boilers, reactors etc. 2.5.2. Process or Functional Layout A typical process or functional layout is shown in Fig. 2.2. In this type of layout arrangements of similar machines, production facilities and manufacturing operations are grouped together  Plant and Shop Layout 21 according to their functions. Machine tools of one kind are positioned together so that all the similar operations are performed always at the same place e.g. all the lathes may be grouped together for all kinds of turning and threading operations, all drilling machines in one area for carrying out drilling work, all tapping machines in one area for carrying out tapping work, all milling machines in one area for carrying out milling work all buffing and polishing machines at one place for carrying out surface finishing work, and so on. This type of layout is normally preferred for the industries involved in job order type of production and manufacturing and/or maintenance activities of non- repetitive type. This layout needs not to have to be changed every time of the product or component changes. Also the breakdown of any machine does not affect the production. This type of layout is highly suitable for batch production. S h ap in g M illin g D rilling S S M M D D M M D D S S G rin d ing M M S S G G A A G G S S A ssem bly A A G G R e ce ivin g an d shipp in g sto re Fig. 2.2 Typical functional layout Merits The major merits of this layout are : 1. There exists a wide flexibility regarding allotment of work to equipment and workers. 2. There is a better utilization of the available equipment. 3. Comparatively less numbers of machines are needed in this layout and hence thus reducing capital investment. 4. There is an improved product quality, because the supervisors and workers attend to one type of machines and operations. 5. Varieties of jobs coming as different job orders thus make the work more interesting for the workers. 6. Workers in one section are not affected by the nature of the operations carried out in another section. For example, a lathe operator is not affected by the rays of the welding as the two sections are quite separate. 22 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology Demerits The major demerits of this layout are : 1. This layout requires more space in comparison to line or product layout for the same amount of production. 2. Production control becomes relatively difficult in this layout. 3. Raw material has to travel more which increases material handling and the associated costs. 4. This layout requires more efficient co-ordination and inspections. 5. Increased material handling cost due to more movement of process raw material to various paths 6. More material in process remains in queue for further operations. 7. Requires large in-process inventory. 8. Completion of same product takes more time. Application 1. This layout is used for batch or moderate production. 2. It specify path for group technology. 2.5.3. Line or Product Layout A typical line or product layout is shown in Fig. 2.3. This layout implies that various operations on raw material are performed in a sequence and the machines are placed along the product flow line, i.e., machines are arranged in the sequence in which the raw material will be operated upon. In this type of layout all the machines are placed in a line according to the sequence of operations, i.e., each following machine or section is arranged to perform the next operation to that performed by its preceding machine or section. In this layout raw material starts from one end of production lines and moves from one machine to next along a sequential path. Line layout is advantages in the continuous- production system where the number of end products is small and the parts are highly standardized and interchangeable. It is suitable for products having steady demand. This layout may have operational sequence namely forging, turning, drilling, milling, grinding and inspection before the product is sent to the finished goods store for packing and shipment. This layout is used for mass production and ensures smooth flow of materials and reduced material handling. Breakdown of any machine in the line in this layout may result in even stoppage of production. M a terial from S tore C a stin g S h ap in g M illin g D rilling In sp e ction D isp atch Fig. 2.3 Typical line layout Merits Its main merits are— 1. It involves smooth and continuous work flow. 2. It may require less skilled workers 3. It helps in reducing inventory. 4. Production time is reduced in this layout.  Plant and Shop Layout 23 5. Better coordination, simple production planning and control are achieved in this layout. 6. For the same amount of production, less space requirements for this layout. 7. Overall processing time of product is very less. 8. This layout involves automatic material handling, lesser material movements and hence leads to minimum possible cost of manufacturing. Demerits The major demerits of this layout as compared with process layout are— 1. It is very difficult to increase production beyond the capacities of the production lines. 2. When single inspector has to look after many machines, inspection becomes difficult 3. This layout is very less flexible for product change. 4. The rate or pace rate of working depends upon the output rate of the slowest machine and hence leading to excessive idle time for other machines if the production line is not adequately balanced. 5. Machines being put up along the line, more machines of each type have to be installed for keeping a few as stand by, because if on machine in the line fails, it may lead to shut down of the complete production line. That is why the line or product layout involves heavy capital investments. Applications It is used in assembly work. 2.5.4. Combination Layout Fig. 2.4 shows a typical combination type of layout for manufacturing different sizes of crank shafts. It is also known as group layout. A combination of process and product layouts combines the advantages of both types of layouts. Most of the manufacturing sections are arranged in process layout with manufacturing lines occurring here and there scattered wherever the conditions permit. These days, the most of manufacturing industries have adopted this kind of layout. In this type of layout, a set of machinery or equipment is grouped together in a section, and so on, so that each set or group of machines or equipment is used to perform similar operation s to produce a family of components. A combination layout is L ine L ayo ut 1 3 2 3 4 5 Finish e d P rod ucts P ro cess La you t R aw M a te ria l 1 3 1 3 2 3 4 5 1 3 Fig. 2.4 Typical combination layout 24 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology possible where an item is being made in different types and sizes. In such cases, machinery and manufacturing equipments are arranged in a process layout but a group of number of similar machines is then arranged in a sequence to manufacture various types and sizes of products. In this layout, it is noted that, no matter the product varies in size and type, the sequence of operations remain same or similar. This layout is suitable when similar activities are performed together thereby avoiding wasteful time in changing from one unrelated activity to the next. It focuses on avoiding unnecessary duplication of an effort. It is preferable for storing and retrieving information changing related to recurring problems thereby reducing the search tin understanding information and eliminating the need to solve the problem again. It is also useful when a number of items are produced in same sequence but none of the items are to be produced in bulk and thus no item justifies for an individual and independent production line. There are some merits, demerits and application of this layout which are given as under : Merits The merits of this type of layout are: 1. Reduction in cost of machine set-up time and material handling of metals. 2. Elimination of excess work-in-process inventory which subsequently allows the reduction in lot size. 3. Simplification of production planning functions, etc. Demerits The major demerits of this layout are : 1. Change of the existing layout is time consuming and costly. 2. Inclusion of new components in the existing component requires thorough analysis. 3. Change of input component mix may likely to change complete layout structure. 4. Change of batch size may change number of machines. Application Manufacturing circular metal saws, hacksaw, wooden saw, files and crank shaft. 2.6 Comparison of Line or Product Layout and Process or Functional Layout Comparison of line or product layout and process or functional layout is given in Table 2.1. Table 2.1 Comparison of Line or Product Layout and Process or Functional Layout S.No. Line or Product Layout Process or Functional Layout 1. In line or product layout, similar machines In process or functional layout, similar are arranged according to the sequence of machines are arranged in one location for operations required for manufacturing the manufacturing the product. product. 2. It leads to transfer lines. It leads to group technology. 3. It is meant for mass production and It is meant for moderate production and more extremely less job variety job variety 4. Work flow is smooth in this layout Work flow is not smooth in this layout 5. Job movement is very less. Job movement is comparatively more. 6. Full automation in material handling is Automation in material handling is not possible in this layout. effective in this layout.  Plant and Shop Layout 25 7. Machine utilization is poor in this layout. Machinery utilization is better in this layout. 8. Capital investment required is more in this Capital investment required is comparatively layout. less in this layout. 9. Inventory requirement is less. Inventory requirement is comparatively more. 10. Breakdown of one machine affects greatly in Breakdown of one machine does not affect so this layout. much in this layout. 11. Production planning and control is easy. Production planning and control is comparatively difficult. 12. Quality of product is not so good. Quality of product quality is better 13. Work flexibility is very less in this layout Work flexibility is more in this layout 14. Space required for same amount of Space required for same amount of production production is less. is comparatively more. 15. Time taken in completion of product is less. Time taken in completion of product is more. 16. Less skilled workers are required More skilled workers are required. comparatively. 17. Monotony in working is more because jobs Monotony in working is less because jobs are are repetitive in nature in this layout. non-repetitive in this layout. 18. It is used in mass production or assembly It is used in job order production or work. maintenance work of non-repetitive type. 2.7 QUESTIONS 1. What do you understand by the term plant layout? 2. Name and explain different factors responsible for selection of the site for installation of a new plant layout. 3. What are the major objectives of plant layout? 4. What are the common advantages of a good plant layout? 5. Explain the various kinds of plant layout and the situations in which each type is used. 6. Compare process layout and product layout. 7. List out the equipments required for a sheet metal shop, carpentry shop, foundry shop, smithy and forging shop. Draw also the layouts of the above shops. 8. Prepare a layout for fitting shop and machine shop.  Industrial Safety 27 by safety measures. Every industrial personnel are required to contribute the efforts towards safety. For ensuring industrial safety, the first factory act in India was passed by the Governor General of India on 23rd Sept., 1948. It was further amended in 1950, 1951, 1954 and 1976, which came into force on 26th November, 1976. 3.2 SAFETY CONCEPTS In all kinds of industries, each shop supervisor is generally assigned the responsibility of safety in his shop regarding the men, machines and materials. Every supervisor in each shop ensures to the top executives in respect of all kinds of the safety matters. He is supposed to incorporate all new safety measures needed in the shop from time to time. With the growth in the size of the industry and depending upon the hazardousness of industrial processes, a full fledged safety department should be created under the intensive supervision through a safety manager. The safety manager may be given a line position or staff position depending upon the working conditions in the industry. Sometimes the responsibility for safety rests on a safety committee formed by the top executives of the organization. A safety committee may consist of executives, supervisors, and shop floor workers. Thus the lower level employees get a channel of communication on safety matters direct to executive level. It is a matter of fact that those organizations which made safety committees had lower record of accidents than those without safety committees. Safety committees always motivate all the industrial employees for developing safety consciousness. It acts also as a policy making body on safety matters. To enhance the efficiency of the safety committee, some safety problem may be assigned to safety staff for identifying and implementing safety rules and publicizing them. Its members should be asked to go on the shop floor and watch what is being done there till date about the safety measures. It should be asked to report periodically as what improvements have been made and what more can be done for safety aspects in near future for avoiding any mis-happening in the plant. Safety committee often organizes safety programs to make industrial persons sufficiently alert for overall safety within the plant. A safety program tends to discover when, where and why accidents occur. It always aims at reducing accidents and the losses associated with them. It begins with the assumption that more work-connected accidents can be prevented. It does not have an end rather it is a continuous process to achieve adequate safety. It involves providing, safety equipments and special training to employees. It consists of support by top management, appointing a safety officer, engineering a safe plant, processes and operations, educating all industrial employees to work safely, studying and analyzing the accidents to prevent their occurrence in future, holding safety contests, safety weeks etc., and awarding incentives or special prizes to departments which enforces the safety rules and having least number of accidents. A safety programme should always include engineering safety at the design and equipment installation stage, education of employees in safe practices, concerns the attitude of employees and management. It should motivate all the industrial employees in accident prevention and safety consciousness. It must provide all safety instructions and training essential for the employees to think, act and work safely so that the number of accidents can be minimized. Safety education must give knowledge about safe and unsafe mechanical conditions and personal practices. Safety training must involve induction and orientation of new recruits to safety rules and practices, explaining safety function, during their initial job training through efforts made by the first level supervisors. Formulating employee’s safety committees, holding of employee’s safety meeting, display of charts, posters, film etc. are very much essential in each industry for stressing the need to act safely. It educates employees to develop their 28 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology safety consciousness. An industrial worker will usually accept the use of a safety measure if he is convinced of its necessity. Therefore, suitable measures must be adopted to increase the awareness of a need for safety in the environment of work. Such measures are required in an industrial organization to develop safety consciousness among workers or other employees. There should be sufficient display of safety posters and films from time to time to remind industrial workers to particular hazards/accidents, providing simple and convenient safety devices, providing time to the worker for setting, removing and replacing any necessary safety devices. All industrial personnel should be asked from the first day to start working to adopt safety measures because an unskilled worker should be familiar fully to work safely. A safety committee should manage regular safety programmes that may hold safety competitions. Award and prizes are also to be given to the winners for imparting due respect and recognition to safe workers and create in employees a feeling of pride in safe work. It should elaborate on the safety theme until all the employees are safety conscious. It must hold regular safety meetings and stimulates the safety ideas in industrial workers for being more safety conscious. It must ask the shop supervisor to display all the safety aspects near the work centre. It should also mail safety information and sufficient literature pertaining to safety for reading at homes of all the industrial employees. It must welcome all safety suggestions. It must mark categorically all accident areas. It must conduct safety training lectures periodically for providing wide publicity to safety aspects for everything including men, machines and materials 3.3 PLANNING FOR INDUSTRIAL SAFETY Mis-happening of a large number of fire hazards, accidents, industrial disasters etc., can be reduced to the minimum possible extent through careful safety planning within an industrial organization. All these unwanted events can be prevented by effective planning for safety. Safety consideration includes proper layout of buildings and equipment, such as providing adequate ventilation, sufficient working area to the operator, clear pathways for movement of materials and parts, provision for adequate personnel facilities- viz., canteens, lunch rooms, dispensary, fire fighting services, etc. Careful planning in advance for optimized and safe layout of design and manufacturing activities for industry ensures industrial safety in the manufacturing and inventory areas. Incorporating safety considerations well in time are helpful for the establishment of a new plant as well as an existing plant needing major alterations. Such considerations lead to adequate safety to men, machine and equipments, reduction in operational time and increase in production. Several codes and standards for industrial safety, health and hygiene, fire prevention, etc. have been prescribed by government and other safety agencies and they should be fully taken care of at the planning and implementation stages of a plant. A number of important features should be considered and suitably incorporated planning the layout of a new plant and its buildings for safety. Hoists and conveyors are commonly used in industries for raising, lowering and transporting loads for limited distances. A high degree of safety is needed while these equipments are in operation. During operations of these equipments, one should keep in mind the following important safety measures. Material handling and its storage are very common functions in a plant. Material handling when performed manually the chances of injuries are greater. Therefore the following points should be taken care for carrying out such tasks. All material handling equipments such as conveyers, automotive guided vehicles, robots, cranes should carry proper guards for its gears and other dangerous moving parts to prevent access from these parts during operation. All  Industrial Safety 29 hoisting devices must be equipped with limit switches for preventing loads block from over traveling accidentally. Hoisting equipment especially cranes, should only be operated by properly trained personnel for avoiding all sorts of mishaps or accidents. While operating a crane, the operator should be entirely guided by standard signal and both operator and his signaler should be thoroughly trained. Proper protections against fire and explosion hazards are required when gasoline operated crains are being used. Where manual loading is done on conveyors which run along a vertical path, either partially or totally, safe load sign should be prominently displayed on all loading stations. Sufficient lighting, ventilation, drainage, escape ways and guarding should be provided for conveyors which run in pits, tunnels and similar other enclosures. Riding on a conveyor should always be prohibited. All the persons working on or around the conveyor must wear tight cloths and safety shoes. All rotating, reciprocating and projecting parts of machinery and equipments such as sprockets, gears, etc., should be adequately protected by proper guarding. An effective lubrication schedule should be worked out and implemented. All inspection should be carried out regularly and worn out parts, if any, should be replaced immediately. The workers should be properly trained to adopt safe working habits and proper supervision should be done while these operations are being carried out manually. Industrial personnel and unskilled workers should be adequately trained for adopting safe working habits in the proper ways of lifting and setting down the objects. They should be told to be careful from pinches and shear points and to grasp the articles firmly when lifting or setting down. Objects which are wet or dirty or have slippery surfaces, such as greasy or oily and wet articles should be completely wiped off dry before handling them. The hands should also be kept free of oil and grease. For preventing hand injuries the handlers should be made to wear protective clothing like leather hand gloves, sleeves, etc. The worker handling materials should always wear foot in order to prevent foot injuries. If an object is to be lifted and carried to some distance it should be ensured that the pathway is not slippery and there are no obstructions on the passage or way. The unskilled industrial workers should be properly trained for keeping correct positions of their feet, positions of back and knees, holding the object close to the body while lifting and carrying, correct and firm grip, position of chin and application of body weight in lifting and setting down by hand. This will help to prevent muscle strains and back injuries. When a gang or team of workers is used to carry a heavy load form one place to another the supervisor should ensure the use of proper tools and direct the work himself to ensure proper synchronization in the lifting, walking and setting down actions of all the workers involved. While transporting material by trucks, the truck should be operated at safe limit speed as specified and special care should be taken at blind corners and doorways. During storing material, it should be ensured that the electrical panels and installations and fire extinguishers and hoses are kept clear and have free accessibility. Also the pathways, entries and exits should always be kept clear for movement. The use of racks and bins enables more storage capacity, easy movement of material from one place to another and ensures better safety in an industrial organization 3.3.1 Objectives of Industrial Safety The objectives of industrial safety are as follows: 1. Industrial safety is needed to check all the possible chances of accidents for preventing loss of life and permanent disability of any industrial employee, any damage to machine and material as it leads to the loss to the whole establishment. 2. It is needed to eliminate accidents causing work stoppage and production loss. 30 Introduction to Basic Manufacturing Processes and Workshop Technology 3. It is needed to prevent accidents in industry by reducing any hazard to minimum. 4. It is needed to reduce workman’s compensation, insurance rate and all the cost of accidents. 5. It is required to educate all members regarding the safety principles to avoid accidents in industry. 6. It is needed to achieve better morale of the industrial employees. 7. It is required to have better human relations within the industry. 8. It is needed to increase production means to a higher standard of living. 3.4 ACCIDENTS AND THEIR TYPES The accidents are the mishaps leading injury to man, machines or tools and equipment and may cause injury and result either death or temporary disablement or permanent disablement of the industrial employees. A survey was conducted in 1952 in America which specified that approximately ten thousands industrial persons were killed in accidents and more than lakhs were injured in a year. The accidents are unwanted events or mishaps that result in some sort of injury to men, material, machines, tools, equipment and semi or finished product hence, a loss to the whole establishment. The total cost of these accidents was more than crores of dollars. An industrial accident may be defined as an event, detrimental to the health of man, suddenly occurring and originating from external sources, and which is associated with the performance of a paid job, accompanied by an injury, followed by disability or even death. An accident may happen to any employee under certain circumstances. The said injury or loss may be minor or major in nature and accordingly the accident is termed as non- reportable or reportable kind. It should, however, be understood that no hard and line of demarcation can be laid between these two aspects and their identification varies with the place of application. For example a small burn or cut oft body will be reportable accident in a workshop whereas the same, can be treated by first aid and does not involve any appreciable loss of time, not be considered a reportable accident. Few industries determine the accidents by the extent to which it leads to the disablement of the victim and number of hours or days he is to remain absent from duty on account of the problem. There are others which take into consideration various factors like machine, tools, materials, cost of medicines, loss of production and compensation to be given to the worker who meets with the accident. An accident can be very costly to the injured employee as well as to the employer of the manufacturing concern. Some direct or indirect costs are associated with accidents in industries. The direct costs involve payment of compensation and overheads uncompensated wage losses of the injured employees, cost of medical care and hospitalization. Whereas indirect costs of an accident comprise of costs of damage of machines, materials and plant equipments, costs of wages paid for time lost by workers not injured, costs of wages paid to the victim, costs of investigating agency involving recording and reporting of accidents and its causes, co