Condition of Practice PDF

Condition of Practice Power law of practice - It is a learning theory that describes how practice leads to performance improvement, but at a diminishing rate over time. - Early in practice, performance improves rapidly. - As practice continues, the rate of improvement slows d...

Condition of Practice Power law of practice - It is a learning theory that describes how practice leads to performance improvement, but at a diminishing rate over time. - Early in practice, performance improves rapidly. - As practice continues, the rate of improvement slows down. Advantages and limitations of part-whole practice 1. Advantages: - Separate drill for the hardest part of the movement (Transfer from part-practice is better than going 100% all the time) - Separate drills for each limb 2. Disadvantages - Interference between the limbs can affect part-whole practice, because for some movements it is hard to isolate a single limb to work on. - May not benefit from continuous or highly interdependent skills like swimming strokes or running. Explain principles of guidance and specificity - Guidance: Assistance during the execution of the movement (Verbal, Visual and Physical) Advantages/Disadvantages of Guidance 1. Guidance helps to build confidence, especially in beginners. 2. Helps prevent errors during the early stages of learning 3. Builds the learner’s confidence by providing support when needed 4. Enhances understanding of movement patterns for learners who struggle to grasp complex skills.  5. If overused, it can create dependency on guidance, meaning the learner may struggle to perform the movement without help. Guidance (such as visual cues or tools) can enhance motor skill performance during acquisition, there can be a negative transfer if learners become too dependent on it. For better learning and transfer to real-world situations (without guidance), practicing in conditions that are closer to the target environment (specificity) is crucial. This supports the specificity of learning hypothesis, which claims that motor skills learned in a context-specific manner are more likely to be successfully applied in similar contexts. Visuo-Motor and Somatic-motor Pathway (And how this relates to Guidance) 1. Involves Visual Feedback to guide motor actions - Pathway goes from the Posterior Parietal Cortex (Process visual information) → Premotor Cortex (Use Visual Cue to Plan Movement)→ Motor Cortex (Execute Planned movement) - Example: Catching a ball. The eyes provide spatial information about the ball's position, and this guides the arm to move appropriately. - Visual guidance is critical in early skill acquisition as learners rely on visual information to coordinate movements. - This pathway is essential for tasks requiring precision and alignment with external visual cues 2. Involves sense of body position and movement - Pathway goes from Somatosensory Cortex (Processes sensory input from muscles, joints and skin) → Premotor Cortex (Plans movement based on the sensory input) → Motor Cortex (Execute movement) - Example: Lifting a heavy object. Proprioceptive feedback from the muscles informs how much force to exert. - This pathway emphasizes specificity in learning. Practicing under conditions that mimic the task helps the nervous system adapt to specific feedback patterns (e.g., the feel of a tennis racket during a stroke). Key Aspects of Specificity 1. Practice Environment - Practice should occur in conditions that are similar to the real game or situation 2. Sensory information - The sensory input (like visual and auditory) should mimic real-life performance conditions as closely as possible 3. Movement Specificity - The movements practiced should be exactly the same as those required in the actual performance. Benefits of Specificity - Improves skill transfer to real performance environments - Enhances the ability to perform under real-world conditions - Help develop muscle memory and fine-tune movements for the task Limitations of Specificity - It can be difficult to recreate the exact game conditions - May limit creativity and adaptability Why Variable Practice is beneficial for learning a motor skill - Result in greater learning and generalizability - Other factors influencing variability of practice effects (Age, Nature of task and Variable practice schedule) - Practicing in different conditions exposes the learner to a wide range of experiences, helping them understand the relationships between movement parameters and outcomes. (Easier for them to adapt the skill to unpredictable situations) - Example: A soccer player practicing penalty kicks from different angles and distances learns to adjust their force and aim depending on the scenario. - Encourages Retention: Better long-term retention of the skill.  - Avoid Reliance on Repetition - Improves Error Detection and Correction How to implement Variable practice in practical settings 1. Modify Task Parameters (Helps generalize the skill across different situations) 2. Combine Practices (Mix different skills within a practice session. Forcing the learner to switch between tasks and adapt quickly, better retention and transfer) 3. Simulate Game-Like Scenarios 4. Gradually Increase Complexity (Gradually increase difficulty as learners become more skilled. helpful for beginners transitioning to more advanced stages) 5. Provide Feedback Strategically Why contextual interference is beneficial for learning a motor skill 1. Enhances Problem-Solving and Adaptability (Practicing in random or variable sequences forces the learner to actively engage in problem-solving each time a task changes) 2. Improves Retention (Mental effort required to switch between tasks during high-contextual interference practice enhances memory consolidation and makes the skill more resistant to forgetting 3. Encourages Deeper Learning (To process the task at a deeper cognitive level, rather than relying on repetition and muscle memory alone) 4. Transfer of Learning (Skills learned under high contextual interference are more likely to transfer to new contexts or environments because the learner has already practiced adjusting to variability.) 5. Reduces Context-Specificity (Allow skill to be generalized) 6. Develop Error Correction Skills How to implement Contextual interference in practical settings 1. Random Practice Structure (Different tasks or skill variation are practiced in a random order) 2. Vary Task Conditions (Changing the environment and the task demands)  3. Interleave Skills (Interleave multiple related skills, creating variability in the practice session) 4. Implement Game-like Scenarios 5. Incorporate Cognitive Load (Help learners process more information simultaneously and respond faster in dynamic environments.) Contrast Variable practice and Contextual Interference - Variable Practice, focuses on one skill with different variations (speed, distance or environment). Goal is to help learners generalize the skill to different contexts (Tennis serving with different angles and speed) - Contextual Interference, practices multiple skills in a random order (mixing tasks). Goals is to promote long term retention, problem solving and adaptability (Practicing dribbling, passing and shooting in a random order during soccer practice) Augmented Feedback Definitions - Augmented Feedback: Any information that supplements the information that is naturally available - Inherent Feedback: Information that was naturally available - Knowledge of result (KR): Information pertaining to the outcome of the movement - Knowledge of Performance (KP): Information pertaining to the execution of the movement. - Concurrent vs Terminal Feedback (Immediate vs Delayed Feedback): Concurrent is given during a task and terminal feedback is given after a task is completed - Sensory Information divided into 2 types (Movement-related and Non-movement related) - Movement related sensory information are divided into available before a movement or Available as a result of a movement (Feedback)  - For Feedback there is Intrinsic (Visual, Auditory, Touch, Smell) and Extrinsic (KP and KR) Research on Augmented feedback Law of Effect (Thorndike) - Positive Feedback: This strengthens the likelihood that the correct action will be repeated - Negative Feedback: Can help learners avoid incorrect actions - He did not directly study augmented feedback, but he helped us understand how external feedback helps learners improve. - He also said that too much external feedback (augmented) can make learners dependent on it. - Feedback helps reinforce correct actions guiding learners towards improvement. Effects of augmented feedback on motor learning Bilodeau, Bilodeau, & Schumsky (1959) Key Findings: 1. Continuous vs Intermittent Feedback - Continuous Feedback: Some people in the trial received feedback after every attempt (Improved during practice but showed poorer retention of the skill once feedback was removed) - Intermittent Feedback: In other trials, feedback was provided after only a few attempts not every time. (These people performed better in retention tests) 2. Feedback Dependency - Too much feedback can result in learners becoming too dependent on external cues. (Reduce their ability to self-correct and solve problems) - Fading the feedback over time can be beneficial for long-term learning. 3. Optimal Feedback Frequency  - Intermittent feedback is more effective for promoting retention and transfer of motor skills. It encourages learners to develop their own internal monitoring and correction strategies. 4. Retention and Transfer - If Intermittent feedback was used, skills learned will more likely transfer to new situations and be retained after a delay. - Learners develop greater autonomy in performing the skill without needing constant guidance. Effects of augmented feedback on motor performance 1. Immediate impact on motor performance - Improvement in Performance (Augmented Feedback provides learners with information about the correctness or error in their movement, improves performance during practice) 2. Feedback types and its effect on performance - Knowledge of Result: This type of feedback gives information about the outcome of the movement, such as whether the ball went in the goal or whether the correct target was hit. (Reinforces correct actions and letting the learner know whether they achieved the desired outcome, but may not have information on how to improve) - Knowledge of Performance: This type of feedback gives information about the quality of the movement itself, such as the technique used or the alignment of the body during the movement. (Refines techniques and corrects errors in real-time, enhancing skill execution. Useful for complex or technical skills. 3. Frequency of Augmented Feedback - Continuous Feedback can improve immediate performance but can hinder long-term learning. - Intermittent or Faded Feedback can be more effective for long-term learning and retention. Allow learners to engage more in self-regulation and improve their ability to independently correct errors.  4. Timing of Augmented Feedback - Immediate Feedback: giving feedback right after the performance of a movement can help learners make quick corrections and refine their technique. (Helpful in the early stages of learning when mistakes are frequent and need direct correction) - Delayed feedback: Giving a brief interval, encourages learners to self-evaluate their performance (enhance their error-detection and self-correction) 5. Performance vs Learning - Performance: Augmented Feedback can significantly improve motor performance in the short term by helping learners correct errors and refine movements quickly. - Learning: The effects of augmented feedback on motor learning (retention and skill transfer) is different for everyone. Over-reliance on feedback can reduce the development of self-regulation and problem-solving abilities, limiting learning in the long run. Knowledge of performance (KP) - Provides feedback on the quality of the movement or the technique used during a task, rather than the outcome. - KP focuses on the process of performing a skill, such as how a movement was executed or if it was done correctly, even if the result was not successful. Knowledge of Result (KR) - Bandwidth KR: Providing feedback during motor skill acquisition where feedback is given only if the performance error falls outside the predetermined range. - No KR is a form KR: It is technically no because there is no result information provided, but it is used as a strategic decision in feedback schedules. By withholding KR, learners are pushed to rely more on their own intrinsic feedback, which can ultimately lead to better skill retention and greater independence in performing the skill.  - Learner-determined KR: Knowledge of the result will only be provided if the participant requested it - Erroneous KR: Knowledge of results that contains a bias or an error. (Effect stronger if erroneous KR presented on every trail) - Relative KR: The ratio of the number of times knowledge of result is provided to the total number of practice trials. - Absolute KR: The total number of successful outcomes or trials that are presented to the learner during a practice session, without comparing it to any baseline or previous performance. - Summary KR: Augmented information about a set of performance trails presented after the set is completed - Average KR: A type of summary-KR method that presents results of two or more trails as a statistical average - Temporal locus of KR: Timing of when KR is provided to the learner after performing a motor task. (Immediate, Delayed, Summary KR) Summary means a summary of result after every 5 to 10 attempts. Difference of KP and KR - KR is used when the performance outcome is clear and easily measurable. - KP used in technical or complex skill learning. - KR helps learners assess their success or failure in achieving a goal - KP helps refine technique and correct errors in movement. How does KP and KR manipulate performance and learning - KP is refining the quality of movement, helping learners understand how to perform a skill correctly. Promotes long-term learning and development of motor skills. - KR is important for providing outcome-based feedback that helps learners know whether they’ve achieved their goals. While it motivates and reinforces the correct result, it’s essential to balance KR and avoid dependency, especially for long-term retention and independent skill execution. How to apply KP and KR in practical settings 1. Applying KP: Focus on specific aspects of the technique that needs adjustment. Provide feedback in real-time or immediately after the attempt. Use during early stages of learning. 2. Applying KR: Early stage of learning to reinforce whether the goal was achieved to help the learner connect movement to outcome. This can also be used in the later stages of learning, to help maintain motivation and adjust techniques if the outcome is not consistent. How does Augmented Feedback work ○ Cognitive Stage (Early Learners): At this stage, learners benefit greatly from frequent and detailed augmented feedback to understand the mechanics of the movement. They rely on feedback to form basic movement patterns. ○ Associative Stage (Intermediate Learners): Learners still benefit from feedback, but now the focus should be on refining technique and learning to correct errors independently. Feedback may be provided less frequently, and more focus should be on performance consistency. ○ Autonomous Stage (Advanced Learners): Learners in this stage typically require minimal feedback since they are able to self-correct and rely more on intrinsic feedback. Feedback should be minimal and only provided for fine-tuning or advanced adjustments. Mental Practice Differences in Imagery abilities - Imagery entails illumination, definition and color - Inability to imagine voluntarily (Aphantasia) - Elements can intrude on each other: Numbers can be associated with space or color How imagery ability can be assessed 1. Subjective Measures (Questionnaires and Scales) (MIQ - Movement Imagery Questionnaire is a tool designed to assess an individual's ability to use imagery, particularly in the context of motor skills and physical movements.) 2. Objective Behavioral Tests (Image Manipulation Tasks, Mental Rotation Task, Memory and Recall Tasks, Drawing Reproducing Task) 3. Physiological and Neurological Tools (Eye-Tracking and Neuroimaging) 4. Performance-Based Indirect Measures (Imagery Use in skill acquisition and Creative problem solving tasks) Types and Roles of Mental Practice - Types of Mental Practice: Visual (1st and 3rd person perspective) and Kinematic - Role of Mental Practice: Learning, Performance preparation Influence of mental practice on performance and learning - Skill learning and performance enhancement (Improve the learning and execution of motor skills.) (Strengthen the neural pathways associated with the skill.)(Particularly effective for tasks involving precision and fine motor skills) - Preparation for Competition (Rehearse specific skills and strategies and scenarios in their head) - Error Correction and Refinement (Mentally replay and analyze past performances, identify errors and visualize the correct technique)  - Cognitive Training (Improves strategy, decision making and focus, athletes can perform different responses to various scenarios to improve readiness and adaptability) - Arousal Regulation and Confidence Building (Regulate arousal levels, reducing anxiety or increasing focus and energy as needed)(fosters self-confidence by allowing individuals to visualize successful outcomes, thereby reinforcing positive expectations.) - Supplement to Physical Practice (mental practice complements physical practice, combining both will result in better performance.) The three hypotheses and one model associated with mental practice 1. Neuromuscular hypothesis: Mental practice activates the same neural pathways involved in actual physical movements. This "muscle memory" effect enhances motor skill learning by reinforcing the neuromuscular connections. 2. Brain activity hypothesis: Mental practice stimulates brain regions involved in planning, executing and controlling movements (such as motor cortex and Supplementary Motor Area) Mental practice enhances brain readiness for task execution. 3. Cognitive hypothesis: Focuses on the mental rehearsal of cognitive aspects of a skill, such as decision making, sequence planning. Mental practice improves the understanding of task structure and cognitive processing required for successful execution. (A basketball player mentally rehearsing free throws improves concentration, decision-making, and execution by reinforcing task-specific cognitive strategies.) Model 1. Crush (2004) Emulation Theory of Representation: It basically thinks that the brain constructs internal emulators or models that mimic the behavior of the environment or the body. This theory believes that emulators help predict the sensory consequences of movements, allowing smoother and more coordinated  actions. They also enable faster response times by preemptively correcting errors without waiting for feedback. - In physical practice 1. Real Feedback used to compare with expected sensory consequences - In mental practice 1. Feedback is emulated 2. Motor output “volume” When and Why to implement mental practice - Positive effects on performance and learning 1. When combined with physical practice 2. When previous experience exists - Used to allow more practice time: 1. With increasing risk of injury 2. Beyond physiological limits Amount and Distribution of Practice Interpret the concept of Overlearning - It refers to the process of continuing to practice or study a skill or concept beyond the point of initial mastery. Key features of overlearning 1. Beyond Mastery (Involves practicing a skill past the point of just getting it right) 2. Strengthening Retention (Overlearning solidifies neural pathways, making the knowledge or ability more durable over time.) 3. Automaticity (Overlearning can lead to automatic responses, reducing the cognitive load during performance.)  4. Stress Resilience (Skills acquired through overlearning are less likely to degrade under stress or fatigue.) How to balance practice and rest periods to optimize learning 1. Use Space Repetition for Practice (Break practice into shorter, distributed sessions over time rather than cramming in one long session) → Spacing allows the brain to process and strengthen the neural connections during rest periods between sessions. 2. Incorporate Rest Periods During Practice (Rest periods reduce mental fatigue, enhance focus and help maintain high-quality practice) 3. Focus on Active Recovery (Active Recovery like walking or stretching exercises during rest periods, can help the brain reset while keeping the body relaxed and focused.) 4. Monitor Cognitive Load (Shorter, more frequent breaks during demanding tasks, and longer breaks when dealing with less taxing material) 5. Plan Reflection Periods (Reflection enhances metacognition, making future practice more focused.) 6. Alternate Skill Levels (Rotate between learning new concepts and practicing mastered ones. Mixing difficulty levels reduces cognitive overload and promote skill transfer) The benefits of distributed practice 1. Improve Retention (The brain has time to consolidate information between sessions, making it easier to recall later) 2. Enhance Long-Term Learning 3. Minimize Cognitive Overload (Cognitive resources are replenished between sessions, making each practice period more effective) 4. Better Skill Generalization (Learners encounter material in varied context, enhancing their ability to transfer knowledge or skills to new situations) 5. Increased Motivation and Engagement (Learners feel a sense of progress without the mental strain of marathon sessions)  6. Active Recall (Retrieval strengthens memory and deepens understanding, particularly when spaced sessions create a slight “desirable difficulty” 7. Error Correction (Fresh insights lead to a clearer understanding of what went wrong and how to improve) When is distributed practice inherent - It becomes inherent when the nature of the task, environment or learning schedule naturally leads to spaced-out sessions without deliberate planning. Can occur when learning or skill acquisition over time due to external factors or the intrinsic structure of the activity. - Examples include: Training programs for athletes, musicians, or dancers are often designed with periodic practice sessions spread over weeks or months. Effects of practice on Performance vs brain activity Practice and Performance 1. Karni and Marquet(2001) - This study demonstrated that motor skill acquisition involves initial improvement during practice, but significantly refinement and stabilization of performance occur during enough sleep - Performance improves both during practice and after sleep - Initial learning as in practice, engages the motor cortex and associative regions while sleep leads to synaptic consolidation. 2. Mantua et al (2015) - The relation between sleep architecture and measuring time and error proportion improvements. - Error time decreases and accuracy improves, especially after sleep. Sleep quality correlates with greater gains in performance. - Sleep-dependent memory consolidation strengthens neural pathways associated with the practiced task, especially during stage 2 sleep and slow-wave sleep.  3. Error Time Improvement vs %N2 Sleep - N2 sleep (stage 2) with its sleep spindles and K-complexes plays a critical role in refining motor skills. - Higher percentages of N2 sleep are linked to reduced error times and better performance post-sleep - Spindles in Stage 2 facilitate communication between the cortex and thalamus, promoting motor memory consolidation. Practice and Brain Activity 1. Muellbacher et al (2002) - This study highlights the role of practice in driving neuroplasticity and the dependence of motor learning on post-practice consolidation processes. - Immediate performance benefits during practice, followed by offline gains during sleep. - Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies showed that motor cortex excitability increased with practice and further strengthened during sleep. 2. Sleep Stages and Brain Activity - Stage 1 (Theta Waves): Helps in preliminary stabilization of new memories - Stage 2 (Sleep Spindles and K-Complexes): Critical for motor memory consolidation. Spindles also promote integration of motor skills. - Stage 3 and 4 (Delta Waves): Facilitates long-term memory storage. - REM Sleep: plays a role in integrating complex skills and associating new motor memories with broader cognitive frameworks. 3. Quality of Sleep and Motor Learning - High-quality sleep improves motor learning by ensuring all relevant stages are reached and appropriately cycled. - Sleep deprivation disrupts spindles and SWS, impairing skill retention and performance improvement. Case Studies How to assess learning situations 1. Learning Goals 2. Learner Characteristics 3. Instructional methods (engaging, evidence-based and suited for the content) (balance between direct instruction, active participation and practice) 4. Learning Environment 5. Feedback and Assessment 6. Opportunities for Practice and Consolidation (allow for distributed practice and reflection) 7. Emotional and Social Factors Optimize motor learning programs 1. Set Clear and Achievable Goals (short term goals → long term mastery) 2. Incorporate Deliberate Practice (Focus on structured, goal-oriented practice with immediate feedback.) 3. Emphasize Distributed Practice (Schedule shorter, spaced-out practice sessions rather than long, massed ones.) 4. Utilize Variability in Practice 5. Implement Mental Rehearsal 6. Encourage Intrinsic Motivation 7. Reflect on Progress How to to assess the effectiveness of motor learning programs Skill Acquisition: Measure improvements in accuracy, speed, and consistency during practice. Track performance from the baseline to determine immediate learning gains. Retention:  Assess whether skills are maintained over time by testing performance after a break. Transferability: Evaluate the learner's ability to apply skills in new or varied contexts. Error Reduction: Monitor decreases in errors or inefficient movements over time. Learner Feedback: Gather subjective insights from participants on clarity, engagement, and confidence in their learning progress. Motor Programs Describe the rationale for the existence of motor program 1. Automation of Repetitive Movements - Execution of well learned, repetitive movement without conscious deliberation. - The brain can then conserve cognitive resources enabling attention to be directed toward higher-level tasks or novel challenges. 2. Speed of Execution - Real-time movement require rapid processing and execution - Motor plan can execute these movements quicker than the brain planning the movement. 3. Coordination and Precision - Complex movements often involve multiple muscle groups and joints working together in a highly coordinated way. Motor programs pre-define these coordination patterns, ensuring that movements are smooth and precise. 4. Learning and Adaptation  - When an individual practices a movement, the motor program becomes more efficient and effective, reducing variability and error. - This adaptability can help with skill acquisition and mastery 5. Cognitive Offloading - Relying on motor programs, means the CNS can free up cortical resources for planning, probleming-solving or responding to unexpected changes in the environment. 6. Hierarchical Organization of Motor Control - Motor programs fit into a hierarchical structure of motor control, where higher levels (e.g., the cerebral cortex) specify goals and strategies, while lower levels (e.g., the spinal cord or brainstem) implement specific motor commands. This division of labor makes motor control more efficient. Identify evidence that supports and challenges the existence of motor programs 1. Wadman et.al (1979) {Support} - The pre-programmed activation pattern of muscles occurred as if the movement had continued, indicating that the motor plan was generated before execution and not dynamically adjusted based on feedback. - {Support}: This suggests that motor programs exist as predefined plans that guide movement independently of immediate sensory feedback. - {Challenging}: Although EMG patterns suggest pre-planned movements, it is also possible that these patterns are modulated dynamically during execution rather than being fixed. 2. Polit and Bizzi (1979) - Movements were executed based on pre-planned motor commands rather than relying on real-time sensory feedback. - {Support}: Demonstrates that motor behavior can be governed by internally stored motor commands, consistent with the motor program hypothesis - {Challenging}: The study focused on simple movements. More complex movements might require continuous sensory feedback and adjustment,  challenging the idea of fully pre-structured motor programs for all motor actions. 3. Klapp and Erwin (1976) - The increase in reaction time suggested that the entire sequence was planned and programmed before execution began. - {Support}: This pre-planning aligns with the motor program concept, where complex actions are prepared in advance and executed as a unit. - {Challenging}: While the increase in reaction time supports pre-planning, it does not rule out the possibility that sequences are constructed incrementally rather than being fully pre-programmed. This leaves room for alternative explanations, such as hierarchical or feedback-driven planning. Why are generalized motor programs (GMP) can be useful 1. Flexibility across contexts 2. Reduction in Storage Demand 3. Efficient learning and Transfer of Skills 4. Adaptability to Feedback 5. Support Novel Movements 6. Coordination across effectors Motor Schema Theory - Explains how movements are controlled and adapted through the interaction of Generalized Motor Programs (GMPs) and schemas. Steps to the Motor Schema: 1. Initiate Condition and Desired Outcome → (go into) the Motor Response Schema - Starting state of the body and environment before the movement begins - The goal or result intended for the movement 2. Motor Response Schema → (through Response specifications) goes into Motor Program  - This stage specifies the response specifications that tailor the GMP to the current task - Motor Response Schema has two components: 1. Recall Schema: Determines the specific parameters for the movement based on past experiences such as force speed and direction. 2. Recognition Schema: Compares sensory feedback and measured outcomes with the expected results to assess the movement accuracy. 3. Motor Program goes into limbs - Motor Program is a stored template and customized using the response specification. - The motor program sends neural commands to the muscles, initiating movement. 4. Limbs → Environment - Represents external conditions where the movement occurs. 5. Environment → Measured Outcomes - Measured outcome: The actual result of the movement is observed, providing knowledge of results (KR). 6. Feedback Loop - Limbs give Proprioception (Feedback from sensors in muscles and tendons and joints) - The Environment gives Exteroception (Feedback from external sources, like visual or auditory input) - Measured Outcomes give us knowledge of result (External Feedback about whether the goal was achieved) 7. EPF and EEF and Error Detection - EPF is Expected Proprioceptive Feedback which is basically when the motor response schema predicts the sensory feedback the body should feel. It is then compared with actual proprioceptive feedback (from the  muscles and joints) to detect errors or confirm the movement is proceeding as planned. - EEF is Expected Exteroceptive Feedback, the anticipated sensory signals from external sources (exteroceptors), such as visual, auditory, or tactile feedback. This motor system predicts external sensory feedback and is compared with actual exteroceptive feedback to confirm the movement's success or identify errors. - Error Labeling: Detects discrepancies between the desired and measured outcomes, identifying areas for improvement. 8. After Error Detecting it goes through Subjective Reinforcement and return to the motor schema - Subjective Reinforcement: Reinforces successful actions, strengthening the schema for future use. 9. Schema Refinement Based on the feedback (from proprioception, exteroception, and KR), the schemas are updated to improve future performance: Adjustments are made to the Recall Schema for better parameter selection. The Recognition Schema is refined to improve the accuracy of error detection and prediction. Stable characteristics of generalized motor program There are three 1. Relative Timing - The Proportion of time spent in each phase or segment of a movement remains consistent across performances, even if the total duration of the movement changes. (Ex: In walking, the relative timing of the swing phase and stance phase remains constant regardless of whether you walk slowly or briskly.) - This ensures the movement maintains its characteristic rhythm  2. Relative Force - The proportion of force applied by different muscles or muscle groups remains constant, even if the overall force changes. - This allows for consistent coordination and control of movement patterns. 3. Sequence of Movements - The order of events or muscle activations remains the same for a particular GMP (Generalized Motor Program) regardless of speed or intensity. - Ensures that the movement retains its identity and intended outcome. Why these characteristics are stable: - These features are hardwired into the structure of the GMP and are responsible for maintaining the integrity of the movement. - Research (e.g., Schmidt's schema theory) shows that people can adapt movements to new situations while preserving these invariant features.