Unit 2 Study Guide African American Studies Advanced (Fall 2024) PDF

Name: Unit 2 Study Guide African American Studies Advanced Freedom, Enslavement, and Resistance Unit 2 explores freedom, enslavement, and resistance in other forms, such as the abolitionist movement, emigration debates, and cultural production. Slave narratives and the new m...

Name: Unit 2 Study Guide African American Studies Advanced Freedom, Enslavement, and Resistance Unit 2 explores freedom, enslavement, and resistance in other forms, such as the abolitionist movement, emigration debates, and cultural production. Slave narratives and the new medium of photography became tools in the fight for freedom that forced the wider public to grapple with the contradiction between slavery and the ideals of democracy and freedom. Developing Understanding Since the early 16th century, Africans who arrived in what is now the United States adapted to, resisted, and influenced the social, political, economic, and cultural dynamics they encountered. In Unit 2, we study the presence of the first Africans in the Americas to the end of the U.S. Civil War. With a focus on freedom, enslavement, and resistance, Unit 2 helps students understand the African diaspora, through which multiple African identities crafted a kinship network based on ethnic/linguistic association, geographical assignment, and emotional connection. The interplay of these identities provided the foundation for Black communities throughout the Americas, wherein religious, cultural, and political practices would meld and inform the attitudes of Black people, both enslaved and free. As the Age of Revolutions attests, Black people's attempts at freedom, in part, defined this era. African Americans’ insistence in asserting their own experience in the conversation, “What Does It Mean to Be Free?” opened questions that forced the nascent United States to grapple with the contradiction between slavery and the ideals of democracy and freedom. However, equally important to the American and French Revolutions were the Haitian Revolution and other forceful acts of resistance: the Louisiana Revolt, the Male Revolt in Brazil, and the Maroon Wars in the Caribbean, each of which would leave an indelible mark on the Western Hemisphere. Important Specific Facts from the CED to MEMORIZE The Transatlantic Slave Trade lasted over 350 years [early 1500s to mid-1800s], and more than 12.5 million enslaved Africans were forcibly trafficked to the New World. Only about 5% of enslaved Africans came directly to the US, the main port of which was Charleston, SC. Enslaved Africans transported directly to mainland North America primarily came from locations that correspond to nine contemporary African regions: Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Nigeria, Angola, and Mozambique. Captives from Senegambia and Angola comprised nearly half of those taken to mainland North America (about a quarter from each region). The top five enslaving nations were Portugal, Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands [Dutch]. The Transatlantic Slave Trade was composed of a three-part journey. It trafficked over 12.56 million people abroad on 36,000 voyages, over 350 years. The first part included capturing and transporting Africans from the interior states to the Atlantic Coast  The slave trade incentivized African societies to war and capture each other to sell to Europeans in exchange for money and/or firearms. Often selling war captives and people from opposing ethnic groups Coastal states became very wealthy during this trade The second part, aka the Middle Passage, involved traveling across the Atlantic OCean. 15% of captives died during the Middle Passage due to unsanitary conditions, physical abuse, sexual abuse, torture, disease, and/or malnourishment. Also, some captives decided to commit suicide rather than endure enslavement. Slave ships were arranged to maximize profit The Middle Passage was, on average, a 90-day journey Resistance took many forms, including hunger strikes, jumping overboard, and mutiny like the La Amistad The third part, aka the Final Passage, occurred when, upon arrival in the Americas, African captives were quarantined, resold, and transported domestically to their new enslavers. The invention of the cotton gin by Eli Whitney ushered in the cash crop cotton boom, aka King Cotton, that intensified plantation-style enslavement, led to the forced relocation of many Indigenous populations in the SE via the Trail of Tears, and created a labor demand boom that dramatically increased enslavement. This interior redistribution of enslaved people is sometimes referred to as the “Second Middle Passage” due to the large-scale nature of this forced domestic migration inside of the United States. Slave codes defined chattel slavery as a race-based, inheritable, lifelong condition and included restrictions against freedom of movement, congregation, possessing weapons, and wearing fine fabrics, among other activities. These regulations manifested in slaveholding societies throughout the Americas, including the Code Noir and Código Negro in French and Spanish colonies. Slave Codes developed in response to Africans’ resistance to slavery, to institutionalized discrimination, and to legalize the status of servitude of African-descended people to include non-citizenship in the US Dred Scott v. Sandford 1857. Dred Scott’s freedom suit (1857) resulted in the Supreme Court’s decision that African descendants, enslaved and free, were not and could never become citizens of the U.S. Partus Sequitur Ventrem Partus sequitur ventrem, a 17th-century law, defined a child’s legal status based on the status of its mother and held significant consequences for enslaved African Americans Partus codified hereditary racial slavery in the U.S. by ensuring that enslaved African American women’s children would inherit their status as property, which invalidated African Americans’ claims to their children Partus was designed to prohibit the mixed-race children of Black women from inheriting the free status of their father (the custom in English common law). Partus gave male enslavers the right to deny responsibility for the children they fathered with enslaved women (most often through assault) and to commodify enslaved women’s reproductive lives. In 1656, Elizabeth Key (born of a White father and an enslaved Black mother) became the first Black woman in North America to sue for her freedom and win. Soon after, in 1662, the legal doctrine of partus sequitur ventrem was passed by the General Assembly of Virginia and spread throughout the remaining 13 colonies. Religious services and churches became sites for community gathering, celebration, mourning, sharing information, and, in the North, political organizing. Religion inspired resistance to slavery in the form of rebellions, such as those led by Nat Turner and Denmark Vesey, and the activism of abolitionists like Maria Stewart, Frederick Douglass, and Henry Highland Garnet. In 1738, the governor of Spanish Florida established a fortified settlement under the leadership of Francisco Menéndez, an enslaved Senegambian who fought against the English in the Yamasee War and 2  found refuge in St. Augustine. The settlement, called Fort Mose, was the first sanctioned free Black town in what is now the U.S. The emancipation from slavery offered by Spanish Florida to slaves fleeing the British colonies inspired the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina in 1739. Led by Jemmy, an enslaved man from the Angola region, nearly 100 enslaved African Americans set fire to plantations and marched toward sanctuary in Spanish Florida. After the Stono Rebellion, in 1740, the British province of South Carolina passed a restrictive slave code that prohibited African Americans from organizing, drumming, learning to read, or moving abroad, including to other colonial territories. One month later, British colonial forces invaded Florida, eventually seizing and destroying Fort Mose. The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was the only uprising of enslaved people that resulted in overturning a colonial, slaveholding government. It transformed a European colony (Saint-Domingue) into a Black republic free of slavery (Haiti) and created the second independent nation in the Americas, after the U.S. The Haitian Revolution prompted Napoleon to sell many of the French colonies, including the Louisiana Purchase bought by Thomas Jefferson, which more than doubled the size of the US and created a controversy about the expansion of slavery into the new territory. The Haitian Revolution inspired uprisings in other African diaspora communities, such as the Louisiana Slave Revolt (1811), one of the largest on U.S. soil, and the Malê Uprising of Muslim slaves (1835), one of the largest revolts in Brazil. Afro-descendants who escaped slavery to establish free communities were known as maroons. Maroon communities emerged throughout the African diaspora, often in remote and hidden environments beyond the purview of enslavers. Some communities lasted for just a few years, while others continued for a full century. Maroon communities consisted of self-emancipated people and those born free in the community. In maroon communities, formerly enslaved people created autonomous spaces where African-based languages and cultural practices blended and flourished, even as maroons faced illness, starvation, and the constant threat of capture. African Americans formed maroon communities in areas such as the Great Dismal Swamp (between Virginia and North Carolina) and within Indigenous communities Resistance often took small forms rather than outright rebellion or escape. Enslaved people continually resisted their enslavement by slowing work, breaking tools, stealing food, or attempting to run away. Inspired by the Haitian Revolution, Charles Deslondes led up to 500 enslaved people in the largest slave revolt on U.S. soil, known as the German Coast Uprising, or the Louisiana Revolt of 1811. Deslondes organized support across local plantations and maroon communities (including self-emancipated people from Haiti) and led them on a march toward New Orleans. The revolt was violently suppressed. In 1841, Madison Washington, an enslaved cook, led a mutiny aboard the slave brig, Creole, which transported enslaved people from Virginia to New Orleans. Washington seized the ship and sailed it to the Bahamas, knowing that the British had ended slavery in the West Indian colonies in 1833. As a result, nearly 130 African Americans gained their freedom in the Bahamas. More enslaved Africans disembarked in Brazil than anywhere else in the Americas. Approximately half of the 10 million Africans who survived the Middle Passage landed in Brazil, where they were forced to labor in various enterprises such as sugar plantations, gold mines, coffee plantations, cattle ranching, and production of food and textiles for domestic consumption. Some African Americans were enslaved by Indigenous people in the five large nations (Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole). When Indigenous enslavers were forcibly removed from their lands by the federal government during the Trail of Tears, they brought the Black people they had enslaved. The five large Indigenous American nations (Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) adopted slave codes, created slave patrols, and assisted in the recapture of enslaved Black people who fled for freedom. Emigrationists promoted moving away from the U.S. as the best strategy for African Americans to prosper freely, and evaluated locations in Central and South America, the West Indies, and West Africa. Due to their large populations of people of color, shared histories, and promising climate, Central and South 3  America were considered the most favorable areas for emigration. African American supporters of emigration and colonization observed the spread of abolition in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1820 to 1860 and advocated building new communities outside the United States. The continuation of slavery and racial discrimination against free Black people in the U.S. raised doubts about peacefully achieving racial equality in the states. Anti-emigrationists saw abolition as a means to achieve the liberation, representation, and full integration of African Americans in American society. They viewed slavery and racial discrimination as inconsistent with America’s founding charters and believed abolition and racial equality would reflect the nation’s ideals. They saw themselves as having “birthright citizenship.” Advocates of radical resistance embraced overthrowing slavery through direct action, including revolts and, if necessary, violence to address the daily urgency of living and dying under slavery. The term Underground Railroad refers to a covert network of Black and White abolitionists who provided transportation, shelter, and other resources to help enslaved people fleeing the South resettle in free territories in the U.S. North, Canada, and Mexico in the 19th century. An estimated 30,000 African Americans reached freedom through the Underground Railroad in this period. Due to the high number of African Americans who fled enslavement, Congress enacted the Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 and 1850, authorizing local governments to legally kidnap and return escaped refugees to their enslavers. Harriet Tubman is one of the most well-known conductors of the Underground Railroad. After fleeing enslavement, Tubman returned to the South at least 19 times, leading about 80 enslaved African Americans to freedom. She sang spirituals to alert enslaved people of plans to leave. In the 19th century, African American leaders embraced photography, a new technology, to counter stereotypes about Black people by portraying themselves as citizens worthy of dignity, respect, and equal rights. Slave narratives described firsthand accounts of suffering under slavery, methods of escape, and acquiring literacy, with an emphasis on the humanity of enslaved people to advance the political cause of abolition. Narratives by formerly enslaved African American women convey their distinct experiences of constant vulnerability to sexual violence and exploitation. The 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, a wartime order, declared freedom for enslaved people held in the 11 Confederate states still at war against the Union. After the Civil War, legal enslavement of African Americans continued in the border states and did not end until the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865 Juneteenth marks the end of slavery in the last state of rebellion—Texas. It commemorates June 19, 1865, the day that enslaved people in Galveston, Texas, were informed that they were free by Major-General Gordon Granger’s reading of General Order No. 3. This order was the first document to mention racial equality through “an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves.” Learning Objective Key concepts, people, and events (questions) (answers) Explain the significance EK 2.1.A.1 of Ladinos' roles as the first Africans to arrive in - In the early 16th century, some free and enslaved Africans familiar with the territory that became Iberian culture journeyed with Europeans in their earliest explorations of the Americas; among them were the first Africans in the territory that became the United States. the United States. These Africans were known as ladinos. - Ladinos were part of a generation known as Atlantic Creoles. Atlantic Creoles were Africans who worked as intermediaries before the predominance of chattel slavery. Their familiarity with multiple languages, cultural norms, and commercial practices granted them a measure of social 4  mobility. - Ladinos were essential to the efforts of European powers laying claim to Indigenous lands. Black participation in America’s colonization resulted from Spain’s early role in the slave trade and the presence of enslaved and free Africans in the parties of Spanish explorers who laid claim to “La Florida”— Spain’s name for an area that included Florida, South Carolina, and Georgia. Describe the diverse EK 2.1.B.1 roles Africans played during the colonization of - In the 15th and 16th centuries, Africans in the Americas played three major the Americas in the 16th roles: century. - As conquistadores, participated in the work of conquest, often in hopes of gaining their freedom - As enslaved laborers, working largely in mining and agriculture to produce profit for Europeans - As free skilled workers and artisans, - Juan Garrido, a conquistador born in the Kingdom of Kongo, moved to Lisbon, Portugal. A free man, he became the first known African to arrive in North America when he explored present-day Florida during a Spanish expedition in 1513. Garrido maintained his freedom by serving in the Spanish military forces and participating in efforts to conquer Indigenous populations. - Estevanico (also called Esteban), an enslaved African healer from Morocco, was forced to work in 1528 as an explorer and translator in Texas and in territory that became the southwestern United States. He was eventually killed by Indigenous groups that were resisting Spanish colonialism. Describe the scale and EK 2.2.A.1 geographic scope of the transatlantic slave trade. - Due to the slave trade, before the 19th century, more people arrived in the Americas from Africa than from any other region. - The transatlantic slave trade lasted over 350 years (from the early 1500s to the mid-1800s), and more than 12.5 million enslaved Africans were forcibly transported to the Americas. Of those who survived the journey, only about 5% (approximately 388,000) came directly from Africa to what became the United States. - Forty-eight percent of all Africans who were brought to the United States directly from Africa landed in Charleston, S.C., the center of U.S. slave trading. - Portugal, Great Britain, France, Spain, and the Netherlands were the top five enslaving nations involved in the transatlantic slave trade. Identify the primary slave EK 2.2.B.1 trading zones in Africa from which Africans were - Enslaved Africans transported directly to mainland North America primarily forcibly taken. came from locations that correspond to nine contemporary African regions: Senegambia, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana, Benin, Nigeria, Explain how the Angola, and Mozambique. Captives from Senegambia and Angola distribution of distinct comprised nearly half of those taken to mainland North America (about a African ethnic groups quarter from each region). during the era of slavery - Enslaved Africans’ cultural contributions in the U.S. varied based on their shaped the development many different places of origin. The interactions of various African ethnic of African American groups produced multiple combinations of African-based cultural practices, communities in the U.S. languages, and belief systems within African-American communities. - The ancestors of early generations of African Americans in mainland North America derived from numerous West and Central African ethnic groups, 5  such as the Wolof (Senegambia), Akan (Ghana), Igbo, and Yoruba (Nigeria). Nearly half of those who arrived in the U.S. came from societies in Muslim or Christian regions of Africa. - The distribution patterns of numerous African ethnic groups throughout the American South created diverse Black communities with distinctive combinations of African-based cultural practices, languages, and beliefs. Describe the conditions - In the first part of the journey, which could last several months, Africans of the three-part journey were captured and marched from interior states to the Atlantic coast. On the enslaved Africans coast, they waited in crowded, unsanitary dungeons. endured during the slave - The second part of the journey, the Middle Passage, involved traveling trade across the Atlantic Ocean, and it lasted up to three months. For most, the Middle Passage established permanent separation from their communities. Aboard slave ships, Africans were humiliated, beaten, tortured, and raped and suffered from widespread disease and malnourishment. Fifteen percent of captive Africans perished in the Middle Passage. - The third, or “final” passage, occurred when those who arrived at ports in the Americas were quarantined, resold, and transported domestically to distant locations of servitude—a process that could take as much time as the first and middle passages combined. Explain how the EK 2.3.B.1 transatlantic slave trade destabilized West - The slave trade increased monetary incentives to use violence to enslave African societies. neighboring societies, and wars between kingdoms were exacerbated by the prevalence of firearms received from trade with Europeans. - Coastal states became wealthy from trade in goods and people, while interior states became unstable under the constant threat of capture and enslavement. - To maintain local dominance and grow their wealth, African leaders sold soldiers and war captives from opposing ethnic groups. In some areas of the Americas, this led to a concentration of former African soldiers, which aided enslaved communities’ ability to revolt. - As a result of the slave trade, African societies suffered from long-term instability and loss of kin who would have assumed leadership roles in their communities, raised families, and passed on their traditions. Describe the key - Formerly enslaved Africans detailed their experiences in genres such as features and purposes of slave narratives and poetry. narratives written by - Slave narratives serve as historical accounts, literary works, and political formerly enslaved texts and are examined through interdisciplinary lenses. Africans. - As political texts, slave narratives aimed to end slavery and the slave trade, demonstrate Black humanity, and advocate for the inclusion of people of African descent in American society. Describe the features of slave ship diagrams EK 2.4. created during the era of - Slave ship diagrams depict a systematic arrangement of captives that aimed the slave trade. to maximize profit by transporting as many people as possible; even so, the diagrams typically show only about half the number of enslaved people on any given ship. - Slave ship diagrams show unsanitary and cramped conditions that increased the incidence of disease, disability, and death during a trip that could last up to 90 days. - Slave ship diagrams rarely include the features enslavers used to minimize 6  resistance, such as guns, nets to prevent captives from jumping overboard, and iron instruments to force-feed those who resisted. Explain how abolitionists and Black artists have EK 2.4 utilized slave ship - In the 18th and 19th centuries, White and Black antislavery activists diagrams during and circulated diagrams of slave ships to raise awareness of the dehumanizing since the era of slavery. conditions of the Middle Passage. - Since abolition, Black visual and performance artists have repurposed the iconography of the slave ship to process historical trauma and honor the memory of their ancestors— the more than 12.5 million Africans who were forced onto over 36,000 known voyages for over 350 years. Describe the methods by which Africans resisted EK 2.4 their commodification - Aboard slave ships, African captives resisted the trauma of deracination, and enslavement commodification, and enslavement individually and collectively by staging individually and hunger strikes, attempting to jump overboard rather than live enslaved, and collectively during the overcoming linguistic differences to form revolts. Middle Passage. - Africans’ resistance made the slave trade more expensive and more dangerous, and it led to changes in the design of slave ships (e.g., the construction of barricades and the inclusion of nets and guns). - In 1839, more than 30 years after the abolition of the slave trade, a Mende captive from Sierra Leone, Sengbe Pieh, led a group of enslaved Africans in one of the most famous revolts aboard a slave ship. During the revolt, the enslaved Africans took over the schooner La Amistad. After a trial that lasted two years, the Supreme Court granted the Mende captives their freedom. The trial generated public sympathy for the cause. Describe the nature of slave auctions in the EK 2.5 19th-century U.S. South. - Slavery leveraged the power of the law and white supremacist doctrine to assault the bodies, minds, and spirits of enslaved Africans and their descendants. Those who resisted sale at auction were punished severely by whipping, torture, and mutilation—at times, in front of their families and friends. Explain how - African American writers used various literary genres, including narratives African-American authors and poetry, to articulate the physical and emotional effects of being sold at advanced the causes of auction to unknown territory. abolition and equality in - African American writers sought to counter enslavers’ claims that slavery their writings about slave was a benign institution and to advance the cause of abolition. auctions. Sources Map showing cotton expansion and the growth of slavery in the U.S. South Broadside for an auction of enslaved persons at the Charleston Courthouse, 1859 Explain how the rise in cotton as a cash crop EK 2.6 drove the growth of the - The invention of the cotton gin increased U.S. production, profits, and domestic slave trade in dependency on cotton as a cash crop. the United States. - The forced removal of Indigenous communities by the U.S. government through the Trail of Tears made lands available for large-scale cotton production. - After the U.S. government formally banned the transatlantic slave trade in 7  1808, the enslaved population grew primarily through childbirth rather than new importations, increasing the supply of enslaved agricultural laborers. Explain how the growth of the cotton industry in EK 2.6 the U.S. displaced - The lower South (South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, enslaved Louisiana, and Texas) was dominated by the slave-cotton system, where African-American enslaved African Americans were especially valuable as commodities due to families. (domestic slave the demand for laborers. trade) - During the cotton boom in the first half of the 19th century, many African Americans were forcibly relocated through the domestic slave trade from the upper South (inland states like Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas, and Missouri) to the lower South. - miles, over one million African Americans were displaced by this “Second Middle Passage”—over two-and-a-half times more people than had arrived from Africa during the original Middle Passage. This massive displacement was the largest forced migration in American history. Sources Broadside advertising “Valuable Slaves at Auction” in New Orleans, 1859 Rice Fanner basket, c. 1863 Source Notes The broadside illustrates the wide range of tasks enslaved people performed (e.g., engineer, ship caulker, ironer), their ages, and other characteristics, such as the languages spoken and their racial designations. It also captures the lingering influence of French and Spanish racial nomenclature on New Orleans; enslaved people are listed as “black,” “mulatto,” and “griffe” (three-quarters Black and one-quarter Indigenous). The rice fanner basket conveys the transfer of agricultural and artistic knowledge from Africa to the U.S. The coiled features of African American basket-making traditions in the Lowcountry resemble those currently made in Senegal and Angola. Describe the range and variety of specialized EK 2.6 roles performed by - Enslaved people of all ages and genders performed a wide variety of enslaved people. domestic, agricultural, and skilled labor in both urban and rural locales. In some areas, there were distinct roles separating domestic and agricultural laborers, although enslaved persons could be reallocated to another type of labor according to the preferences of their enslaver. - Many enslaved people relied on skills developed in Africa, such as rice cultivation. In addition to agricultural work, enslaved people learned specialized trades and worked as painters, carpenters, tailors, musicians, and healers in the North and South. Once free, American Americans used these skills to provide for themselves and others. - Some enslaved people were bound to institutions such as churches, factories, and colleges rather than to an individual person. Evaluate the economic effects of enslaved EK 2.7 people’s commodification - Slavery fostered economic interdependence between the North and South. and labor within and Cities that did not play a major role in the African slave trade nonetheless outside of benefited from the economy created by slavery. African-American - Enslaved people were foundational to the American economy, even though communities. they and their descendants were alienated from the wealth that they both 8  embodied and produced. - Over centuries, slavery deeply entrenched wealth disparities along the U.S.’s racial lines. Enslaved African Americans had no wages to pass down to descendants and no legal right to accumulate property, and individual exceptions to these laws depended on their enslavers’ decisions. Source Excerpts from the South Carolina slave code, 1740 Articles 1–10 from the Louisiana slave code, 1724 Article 1, Section 2 and Article 4, Section 2 of the U.S. Constitution, 1787 Excerpts from Dred Scott’s plea and Chief Justice Roger B. Taney’s opinion in Dred Scott v. Sanford, 1857 Source Notes Louisiana’s Code Noir contained restrictions similar to those in South Carolina’s slave code, along with a greater emphasis on Catholic instruction and regulations that acknowledged the possibility of marriage between enslaved people but forbid interracial relationships. The Reconstruction Amendments (the 13th,14th, and 15th amendments to the U.S. Constitution) overturned the Dred Scott decision. By 1860, Black men could only vote in five of the six New England states (Maine, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire). Explain how American law impacted the lives EK 2.7 and citizenship rights of - Article 1 and Article 4 of the U.S. Constitution refer to slavery but avoid enslaved and free using the terms slave or slavery. “Slave” appeared in an early draft but was African Americans removed. These terms appear for the first time in the 13th Amendment to between the 17th and the U.S. Constitution, which abolished slavery. 19th centuries. - Slave codes defined chattel slavery as a race-based, inheritable, lifelong condition and included restrictions against freedom of movement, congregation, possessing weapons, and wearing fine fabrics, among other activities. These regulations manifested in slaveholding societies throughout the Americas, including the Code Noir and Código Negro in French and Spanish colonies. - Slave codes and other laws deepened racial divides in American society by reserving opportunities for upward mobility and protection from enslavement for White people on the basis of their race and by denying opportunities to Black people on the same premise. - Some free states enacted laws to deny African Americans opportunities for advancement. - Some free states barred entry of free Black people into the state. - Some states enacted restrictions to keep free Black men from voting (e.g., New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Connecticut) and testifying against Whites in court (e.g., Ohio). - By 1870, with the ratification of the 15th Amendment, only Wisconsin and Iowa had given Black men the right to vote. Explain how slave codes developed in response to EK 2.7 African Americans’ - South Carolina’s 1740 slave code was updated in response to enslaved resistance to slavery. people’s resistance during the Stono Rebellion in 1739. The 1740 code classified all Black people and the Indigenous communities that did not submit to the colonial government as nonsubjects and presumed enslaved people. - South Carolina’s 1740 slave code prohibited enslaved people from 9  gathering, drumming, running away, learning to read, or rebelling. It condemned to death any enslaved persons who tried to defend themselves from attack by a White person. - Legal codes and landmark cases intertwined to define the status of African Americans by denying them citizenship rights and protections. Dred Scott’s freedom suit (1857) resulted in the Supreme Court’s decision that African Americans, enslaved and free, were not and could never become citizens of the U.S. Sources Laws of Virginia, Act XII, General Assembly, 1662 “Am I not a Woman and a Sister” from The Liberator, 1849 Explain how partus sequitur ventrem EK 2.8 impacted African - Partus sequitur ventrem, a 17th-century law, defined a child’s legal status American families and based on the status of its mother and held significant consequences for informed the emergence enslaved African Americans. of racial taxonomies in - Partus codified hereditary racial slavery in the U.S. by ensuring that the United States. enslaved African American women’s children would inherit their status as property, which invalidated African Americans’ claims to their children. - Partus was designed to prohibit the mixed-race children of Black women from inheriting the free status of their father (the custom in English common law). - Partus gave male enslavers the right to deny responsibility for the children they fathered with enslaved women (most often through assault) and to commodify enslaved women’s reproductive lives. Explain how racial concepts and EK 2.8 classifications emerged - The concept of race is not based on clear biological distinctions, as more alongside definitions of genetic differences and variations appear within racial groups than between status. racial groups. Concepts and classifications of racial types emerged in tandem with systems of enslavement. - Phenotype (e.g., skin color, hair texture) contributes largely to perceptions of Note: racial identity. During the era of slavery, racial categories were also defined In 1656, Elizabeth Key by law, regardless of phenotype. Legal statutes like partus sequitur ventrem (born of a White father defined racial categories and tied them to rights and status (e.g., enslaved, and an enslaved Black free, citizen) in order to perpetuate slavery over generations. mother) became the - In the U.S., race classification was determined on the basis of hypodescent. first Black woman in Prior to the Civil War, states differed on the percentage of ancestry that North America to sue for defined a person as White or Black. In the late 19th and 20th centuries, a her freedom and win. practice known as the “one-drop rule” classified a person with any degree Soon after, in 1662, of African descent as part of a singular, inferior status. the legal doctrine of - Although many African Americans had European or Indigenous ancestry, partus sequitur ventrem race classification prohibited them from embracing multiracial or multiethnic was passed by the heritage. General Assembly of Virginia and spread throughout the remaining 13 colonies. Sources My Bondage and My Freedom by Frederick Douglass, 1855 Contemporary gospel performance of “Steal Away” Lyrics of “Steal Away,” mid-19th century Explain the emergence EK 2.9 10  and growth of African American faith traditions. - Religious practices among enslaved and free Afro-descendants took many forms and served social, spiritual, and political purposes. - Some enslaved people followed belief systems from Africa. Others blended faith traditions from Africa with those they encountered in the Americas or adhered to Christianity and Islam but practiced in their own way. - Religious services and churches became sites for community gathering, celebration, mourning, sharing information, and, in the North, political organizing. Religion inspired resistance to slavery in the form of rebellions, such as those led by Nat Turner and Denmark Vesey, and the activism of abolitionists like Maria Stewart, Frederick Douglass, and Henry Highland Garnet. Explain the multiple functions and EK 2.9 significance of spirituals. - Musical and faith traditions combined in the U.S. in the form of spirituals—the songs enslaved people sang to articulate their hardships and their hopes. - Enslaved people used spirituals to resist the dehumanizing conditions and injustice of enslavement, express their creativity, and communicate strategic information, such as plans to run away, warnings, and methods of escape. - The lyrics of spirituals often had double meanings. These songs used biblical themes of redemption and deliverance to alert enslaved people to opportunities to run away via the Underground Railroad. Sources Gourd head banjo, c. 1859 Storage jar by David Drake, 1858 Source Notes: Despite bans on literacy for African Americans, David Drake, an enslaved potter in South Carolina, exercised creative expression by inscribing short poems on the jars he created on a range of topics, including love, family, spirituality, and slavery. Explain how African Americans combined EK 2.9 influences from African - African American creative expression drew upon blended influences from cultures with local ancestors, community members, and local European and Indigenous sources to develop new cultures. musical and artistic forms - Africans’ descendants in the U.S. added their aesthetic influences as they of self-expression. made pottery and established a tradition of quilt making as a medium of storytelling and memory keeping. - African Americans drew from varied African and European influences in the construction of instruments such as the banjo, drums, and rattles from gourds in order to recreate instruments similar to those in West Africa. Explain the influence of enslaved Africans’ EK 2.9 and their descendants - Enslaved people adapted Christian hymns they learned and combined musical innovations on rhythmic and performative elements from Africa (e.g., call and response, the development of clapping, improvisation) with biblical themes, creating a distinctly American American music genres. musical genre. This became the foundation of later American music genres, including gospel and the blues. - Senegambians (such as the Wolof and Mandinka) and West Central Africans arrived in large numbers in Louisiana, which influenced the development of American blues. American blues contains the same musical system as fodet from the Senegambia region. 11  Sources Selections of letters written to newspapers from Call and Response, 1831–1841 (pp. 87–89, includes letters from various named and anonymous authors that were originally published between 1831 and 1841, including Freedom’s Journal, The Liberator, The Colored American, and the Minutes of the Fifth Annual Convention for the Improvement of the Free People of Color in the United States) Source Notes: Beginning in the 1830s, African Americans began to hold political meetings, known as Colored Conventions, across the U.S. and Canada. These meetings foregrounded their shared heritage and housed debates about identity and self-identification in African-American communities. Explain how changing demographics and EK 2.10 popular debates about - After the U.S. banned international slave trading in 1808, the percentage of African Americans’ African-born people in the African-American population declined (despite the identity influenced importing of enslaved Africans continuing illegally). the terms they used to - The American Colonization Society was founded during the same era by identify themselves in the White leaders seeking to exile the growing free Black population to Africa. In 19th century and beyond. response, many Black people emphasized their American identity by rejecting the term African, the most common term for people of African descent in the U.S. until the late 1820s. Sources Letter from Governor of Florida to His Majesty, 1739 Excerpt from an Account of the Stono Rebellion, 1739 (first paragraph) Fort Mose Artifacts, Florida Museum of Natural History Watercolor of Fort Mose, Florida Museum of Natural History Explain the effects of the asylum offered by EK 2.11 Spanish Florida to - Founded in Florida in 1565, St. Augustine is the oldest continuously enslaved people in the occupied settlement of African American and European origin in the U.S. 17th and 18th centuries. Beginning in the 17th century, enslaved refugees escaping Georgia and the Carolinas fled to St. Augustine, seeking asylum in Spanish Florida, which offered freedom to enslaved people who converted to Catholicism. - In 1738, the governor of Spanish Florida established a fortified settlement under the leadership of Francisco Menéndez, an enslaved Senegambian who fought against the English in the Yamasee War and found refuge in St. Augustine. The settlement, called Fort Mose, was the first sanctioned free Black town in what is now the U.S. - The emancipation from slavery offered by Spanish Florida to slaves fleeing the British colonies inspired the Stono Rebellion in South Carolina in 1739. Led by Jemmy, an enslaved man from the Angola region, nearly 100 enslaved African Americans set fire to plantations and marched toward sanctuary in Spanish Florida. - After the Stono Rebellion, in 1740, the British province of South Carolina passed a restrictive slave code that prohibited African Americans from organizing, drumming, learning to read, or moving abroad, including to other colonial territories. One month later, British colonial forces invaded Florida, eventually seizing and destroying Fort Mose. Sources The Preliminary Declaration from the Constitution of Haiti, 1805 Frederick Douglass’s lecture on Haiti at the Chicago World’s Fair, 1893 L’Ouverture, 1986; To Preserve Their Freedom, 1988, and Strategy, 1994, from The Life of Toussaint L’Ouverture series by Jacob Lawrence 12  Source Notes: Article 14 of the 1805 Haitian Constitution reversed prevailing functions of racial categories in the Atlantic world, in which “Black” often signified an outsider or noncitizen. Instead, it declared all citizens of Haiti to be Black. By uniting the multiethnic residents of the island under a single racial category, it removed ethno-racial distinctions and reframed Black as an identity that signified citizenship and belonging. Frederick Douglass was appointed General Consul and U.S. Minister to Haiti (1889–1891) by President Benjamin Harrison. Explain the historical and cultural significance of EK 2.12 the Haitian Revolution. - The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was the only uprising of enslaved people that resulted in overturning a colonial, slaveholding government. It transformed a European colony (Saint-Domingue) into a Black republic free of slavery (Haiti) and created the second independent nation in the Americas after the U.S. - The Haitian Revolution had a broad impact: - France lost the most lucrative colony in the Caribbean. - The cost of fighting Haitians prompted Napoleon to sell the Louisiana Territory to the United States. This sale nearly doubled the size of the U.S. and also increased the land available for the expansion of slavery. - France temporarily abolished slavery (from 1794 to 1802) throughout the empire, in colonies like Guadeloupe, Martinique, and French Guiana. - The destruction of the plantation slavery complex in Haiti shifted opportunities in the market for sugar production to the U.S., Cuba, and Brazil. - The Haitian Revolution brought an influx of White planters and enslaved Black refugees to U.S. cities like Baltimore, New York, and Philadelphia and increased anxieties about the spread of slave revolts. Describe the role of maroons in the Haitian EK 2.12 Revolution. - Afro-descendants who escaped slavery to establish free communities were known as maroons. - During the Haitian Revolution, maroons disseminated information across disparate groups and organized attacks. Many of the enslaved freedom fighters were former soldiers who were enslaved during civil wars in the Kingdom of Kongo and sent to Haiti. Explain the impacts of the Haitian Revolution on EK 2.12 African diaspora - For some African Americans, Haiti’s independence and abolition of slavery communities and highlighted the unfulfilled promises of the American Revolution. Black political thought. - The Haitian Revolution inspired uprisings in other African diaspora communities, such as the Louisiana Slave Revolt (1811), one of the largest on U.S. soil, and the Malê Uprising of Muslim slaves (1835), one of the largest revolts in Brazil. - The legacy of the Haitian Revolution had an enduring impact on Black political thinking, serving as a symbol of Black freedom and sovereignty. Sources Letter from Thomas Jefferson to Rufus King, 1802 Describe the daily forms of resistance EK 2.13 13  demonstrated by enslaved people. - Enslaved people continually resisted their enslavement by slowing work, breaking tools, stealing food, or attempting to run away. - Daily methods of resistance helped galvanize and sustain the larger movement toward abolition. *Explain connections between enslaved EK 2.16 resistance within the - In 1526, Africans enslaved in Santo Domingo (Dominican Republic) were U.S. and political brought to aid Spanish exploration along the South Carolina–Georgia developments outside of coastline. They led the earliest known slave revolt in what is now U.S. the U.S. territory and escaped into nearby Indigenous communities. - Inspired by the Haitian Revolution, Charles Deslondes led up to 500 enslaved people in the largest slave revolt on U.S. soil, known as the German Coast Uprising, or the Louisiana Revolt of 1811. Deslondes organized support across local plantations and maroon communities (including self-emancipated people from Haiti) and led them on a march toward New Orleans. The revolt was violently suppressed. - In 1841, Madison Washington, an enslaved cook, led a mutiny aboard the slave brig, Creole, which transported enslaved people from Virginia to New Orleans. Washington seized the ship and sailed it to the Bahamas, knowing that the British had ended slavery in the West Indian colonies in 1833. As a result, nearly 130 African Americans gained their freedom in the Bahamas. - Shaped by common struggles, inspirations, and goals, a revolt in one region often influenced the circumstances and political actions of enslaved Afro-descendants in another region. Sources “Why Sit Here and Die” by Maria W. Stewart, 1832, Explain how free Black people in the North and EK 2.14 South organized to - Throughout the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the free Black population support their grew in the U.S. By 1860, free people were 12% of the Black population. communities. Although there were more free Black people in the South than in the North, their numbers were small in proportion to the enslaved population. - The smaller number of free Black people in the North and South built communities through institutions that thrived in cities like Philadelphia, New York, and New Orleans. They created mutual-aid societies that funded the growth of Black schools, businesses, and independent churches and supported the work of Black writers and speakers. Describe the techniques used by Black women EK 2.14 (Broad/General) activists to advocate for - In the 19th century, Black women activists used speeches and publications social justice and reform. to call attention to the need to consider gender and Black women’s experiences in antislavery discussions. EK 2.14 (Specific Example) - Maria Stewart was the first Black woman to publish a political manifesto and one of the first American women to give a public address. Her advocacy in the 1830s contributed to the first wave of the feminist movement. Explain why Black women’s activism is EK 2.14 historically and - Black women activists called attention to the ways that they experienced the culturally significant. combined effects of race and gender discrimination. - Black women activists fought for abolitionism and the rights of women, paving a path for the women’s suffrage movement. 14  - By highlighting the connected nature of race, gender, and class in their experiences, Black women’s activism anticipated political debates that remain central to African-American politics. (before the term intersectionality, coined by Kimberlé Crenshaw, was used to describe the uniqueness of the plight of black women) Sources Leonard Parkinson, a Captain of the Maroons, 1796 Maroon War in Jamaica, 1834 The Hunted Slaves by Richard Ansdell, 1862 The Maroons in Ambush on the Dromilly Estate in the Parish of Trelawney, Jamaica by F.J. Bourgoin, 1801 Source Notes: Quilombo comes from the word kilombo (war camp) in Kimbundu, a Bantu language in West Central Africa. In 17th-century Angola, Queen Njinga created a kilombo, which was a sanctuary community for enslaved runaways where she offered military training for defense against the Portuguese. Describe the characteristics EK 2.15 of maroon communities - Maroon communities emerged throughout the African diaspora, often in and the areas where they remote and hidden environments beyond the purview of enslavers. Some emerged across the communities lasted for just a few years, while others continued for a full African diaspora. century. - Maroon communities consisted of self-emancipated people and those born free in the community. - In maroon communities, formerly enslaved people created autonomous spaces where African-based languages and cultural practices blended and flourished, even as maroons faced illness, starvation, and the constant threat of capture. - African Americans formed maroon communities in areas such as the Great Dismal Swamp (between Virginia and North Carolina) and within Indigenous communities. - Beyond the U.S., maroon communities emerged in Jamaica, Suriname, Colombia, and Brazil. They were called palenques in Spanish America and quilombos in Brazil. The Quilombo dos Palmares, the largest maroon society in Brazil, lasted nearly 100 years. Describe the purposes of maroon wars throughout EK 2.15 (Broad) the African diaspora. - Maroon leaders and their militias often staged wars (as distinct from slave revolts) against colonial governments to protect their collective freedom and autonomy. Others made treaties with colonial governments that required them to assist in the extinguishing of slave rebellions. - Bayano led a maroon community in wars against the Spanish for several years in Panama in the 16th century. - Queen Nanny led maroons in Jamaica in the wars against the English in the 18th century. Sources Escravo Africano - Mina and Escrava Africano - Mina by José Christiano de Freitas Henriques Junior, 1864, www.slaveryimages.org Festival of Our Lady of the Rosario, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil by Carlos Julião, c. 1770, www.slaveryimages.org Describe features of the enslavement of Africans EK 2.16 in Brazil. - More enslaved Africans disembarked in Brazil than anywhere else in the 15  Americas. Approximately half of the 10 million Africans who survived the Middle Passage landed in Brazil, where they were forced to labor in various enterprises such as sugar plantations, gold mines, coffee plantations, cattle ranching, and production of food and textiles for domestic consumption. - The massive number of African-born people who arrived in Brazil formed communities that preserved cultural practices. Some of those practices still exist in Brazil, such as capoeira (a martial art developed by enslaved Africans that combines music and call-and-response singing) and the Congada (a celebration of the king of Kongo and Our Lady of the Rosary). Explain shifts in the numbers of enslaved EK 2.16 Africans in Brazil and the - During the 19th century in Brazil, the number of enslaved Africans steadily United States during decreased as Brazil’s free Black population grew significantly due to the the 19th century. increased frequency of manumission (release from slavery). Accordingly, by 1888 when Brazil became the last country in the Americas to abolish slavery, approximately 4 million people in Brazil with African ancestry were already free, and Brazil’s abolition freed the approximately 1.5 million Africans still enslaved at that point. - Even after the 1808 ban against the importing of enslaved Africans, the number of enslaved people in the United States increased steadily throughout the 19th century as children of enslaved people were born into enslavement themselves. Approximately 4 million Africans remained enslaved in the U.S.—about 50% of all enslaved people in the Americas—at the time of the Emancipation Proclamation. Sources Arkansas Petition for Freedmen’s Rights, 1869 Abraham, a Black Seminole leader, 1863 Gopher John, a Black Seminole leader and interpreter, 1863 Diary entry recounting the capture of 41 Black Seminoles by Gen. Thomas Sidney Jesup, 1836 Explain how the expansion of slavery in EK 2.17 the U.S. South impacted - Some African American freedom seekers (maroons) found refuge among relations between the Seminoles in Florida and were welcomed as kin. They fought alongside Black and Indigenous the Seminoles in resistance to relocation during the Second Seminole War peoples. from 1835 to 1842. - Some African Americans were enslaved by Indigenous people in the five large nations (Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole). When Indigenous enslavers were forcibly removed from their lands by the federal government during the Trail of Tears, they brought the Black people they had enslaved. - The five large Indigenous American nations (Creek, Cherokee, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Seminole) adopted slave codes, created slave patrols, and assisted in the recapture of enslaved Black people who fled for freedom. - The embrace of slavery by the five large Indigenous American nations hardened racial categories, making it difficult for mixed-race Black-Indigenous people to be recognized as members of Indigenous communities. Sources The Condition, Elevation, Emigration, and Destiny of the Colored People of the United States, Politically Considered by Martin R. Delany, 1852 “Emigration to Mexico” by “A Colored Female of Philadelphia,” The Liberator, 1832, from Call and Response Explain how 19th-century EK 2.18 16  emigrationists aimed to achieve the goal of - African-American supporters of emigration and colonization observed the Black freedom and spread of abolition in Latin America and the Caribbean from 1820 to 1860 self-determination. and advocated building new communities outside the United States. The continuation of slavery and racial discrimination against free Black people in the U.S. raised doubts about peacefully achieving racial equality in the states. - Emigrationists embraced Black nationalism, which was ushered in by abolitionists like Paul Cuffee and Martin R. Delany. Black nationalism promoted Black unity, self-determination, pride, and self-sufficiency. - Emigrationists promoted moving away from the U.S. as the best strategy for African Americans to prosper freely and evaluated locations in Central and South America, the West Indies, and West Africa. Due to their large populations of people of color, shared histories, and promising climate, Central and South America were considered the most favorable areas for emigration. Sources “West India Emancipation” by Frederick Douglass, 1857 ’ What to the Slave Is the Fourth of July’: Descendants Read Frederick Douglass’s Speech,” 2020 (video, 6:59) Explain how transatlantic abolitionism influenced EK 2.19 anti-emigrationists’ - Anti-emigrationists saw abolition as a means to achieve the liberation, political views about the representation, and full integration of African Americans in American society. potential for African They viewed slavery and racial discrimination as inconsistent with America’s Americans belonging in founding charters and believed abolition and racial equality would reflect the American society. nation’s ideals. They saw themselves as having “birthright citizenship.” - Due to the Fugitive Slave Acts, Frederick Douglass and other formerly enslaved abolitionists were not protected from recapture, even in the North. Many found refuge in England and Ireland and raised awareness for U.S. abolition from abroad. - Some anti-emigrationists used moral suasion, rather than radical resistance, to change the status of African Americans in American society. - In the wake of emancipation in the British West Indies (1831-34) and the Dred Scott decision (1857), 19th-century integrationists highlighted the paradox of celebrating nearly a century of American independence while excluding millions from citizenship because of their race. Sources Appeal by David Walker, 1829 “An Address to the Slaves of the United States” by Henry Highland Garnet, 1843 Describe the features of 19th-century radical EK 2.20 resistance strategies - Advocates of radical resistance embraced overthrowing slavery through promoted by Black direct action, including revolts and, if necessary, violence to address the activists to demand daily urgency of living and dying under slavery. change. - Advocates of radical resistance leveraged publications that detailed the horrors of slavery to encourage enslaved African Americans to use any tactic, including violence, to achieve their freedom. Anti-slavery pamphlets were smuggled into the South as a radical resistance tactic. Sources Freedom on the Move: Rediscovering the Stories of Self-Liberating People (teacher choice of advertisements) Excerpt from Harriet, the Moses of Her People by Sarah H. Bradford, 1886 (p. 27–29) 17  Harriet Tubman’s reflection in The Refugee by Benjamin Drew, 1856 (p. 30) Describe the role and scale of the Underground EK 2.20 Railroad in providing - The term Underground Railroad refers to a covert network of Black and freedom-seeking routes. White abolitionists who provided transportation, shelter, and other resources to help enslaved people fleeing the South resettle in free territories in the U.S. North, Canada, and Mexico in the 19th century. - An estimated 30,000 African Americans reached freedom through the Underground Railroad in this period. - Due to the high number of African Americans who fled enslavement, Congress enacted the Fugitive Slave Acts of 1793 and 1850, authorizing local governments to kidnap and legally return escaped refugees to their enslavers. Describe the broader context of the abolitionist EK 2.21 movement in which the - The abolitionist movement in the United States between 1830 and 1870 Underground Railroad advocated for the end of slavery. Black activists and White supporters led operated. and championed the movement to end slavery. The cause spread through several existing churches, and leaders created new organizations solely dedicated to ending slavery. - Abolitionists effectively utilized speeches and publications to galvanize public sentiment and engage in heated debates and confrontations with those who upheld slavery. Explain the significance - Harriet Tubman is one of the most well-known conductors of the of Harriet Tubman’s Underground Railroad. After fleeing enslavement, Tubman returned to the contributions to South at least 19 times, leading about 80 enslaved African Americans to abolitionism and African freedom. She sang spirituals to alert enslaved people of plans to leave. Americans’ pursuit of - Tubman leveraged her vast geographic knowledge and social network to freedom. serve as a spy and nurse for the Union Army during the Civil War. - During the Combahee River raid, Tubman became the first American woman to lead a major military operation. Sources I Go To Prepare A Place For You by Bisa Butler, 2021 Photographs of Harriet Tubman throughout her life: carte-de-visite, 1868–1869; matte collodion print, 1871–1876; albumen print, c. 1908 Explain the significance of visual depictions of EK 2.21 African American leaders - In the 19th century, African-American leaders embraced photography, a new in photography and art technology, to counter stereotypes about Black people by portraying during and after the era themselves as citizens worthy of dignity, respect, and equal rights. of slavery. - Sojourner Truth sold her carte-de-visites to raise money for the abolitionist cause and activities such as speaking tours and recruiting Black soldiers to the Union army. Her photos showcased the centrality of Black women’s leadership in the fight for freedom. - Frederick Douglass was the most photographed man of the 19th century. Photos of formerly enslaved African Americans like Harriet Tubman and Frederick Douglass were especially significant, as they demonstrated Black achievement and potential through freedom. - Many contemporary African-American artists draw from Black aesthetic traditions to integrate historical, religious, and gender perspectives to represent African-American leaders. Their works preserve the legacy of these leaders’ bravery and resistance. 18  Sources Excerpts from Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl: Written by Herself by Harriet Jacobs, 1860 (sections V–VIII, XIV, XXI) Excerpt from The History of Mary Prince, a West Indian Slave by Mary Prince, 1831 Explain how enslaved EK 2.22 women used methods of - Laws against rape did not apply to enslaved African American women. resistance against sexual Some resisted sexual abuse and the enslavement of their children through violence. various methods, including fighting their attackers, using plants as abortion-inducing drugs, infanticide, and running away with their children when possible. - Slave narratives described firsthand accounts of suffering under slavery, Explain how gender methods of escape, and acquiring literacy, emphasizing the humanity of impacted the genre and enslaved people to advance the political cause of abolition. themes of slave - Narratives by formerly enslaved African American women convey their narratives in the 19th distinct experiences of constant vulnerability to sexual violence and century. exploitation. Explain the impact of EK 2.22 Black women’s - Narratives by formerly enslaved Black women reflected 19th-century gender enslavement narratives norms. They focused on domestic life, modesty, family, and resistance on political movements in against sexual violence, whereas narratives by enslaved men emphasized the 19th century. autonomy and manhood. - In the U.S. and the Caribbean, Black women’s narratives of their distinct experiences under slavery advanced the causes of abolition and feminist movements in their respective societies. Sources “The Colored Soldiers” by Paul Laurence Dunbar, 1895 Civil War era photographs: Washerwoman for the Union Army in Richmond, VA, 1860s; or Photograph of Charles Remond Douglass, 1864 Describe enslaved and EK 2.23 free African American - Thousands of free and enslaved African Americans from the North and men and women’s South joined the Union war effort to advance the causes of abolition and contributions during Black citizenship. the U.S. Civil War. - Men participated as soldiers and builders, and women contributed as cooks, nurses, laundresses, and spies. - Enslaved people in the South fled slavery to join the Union war effort, while free African Americans in the North raised money for formerly enslaved refugees and journeyed south to establish schools and offer medical care. - Of the 200,000 Black men who served in the Civil War, 50,000 were free men from the North, and about 150,000 were formerly enslaved men liberated during the Civil War by Union troops and the Emancipation Proclamation. Describe African EK 2.23 American soldiers’ - For many free and enslaved African American men, service in the Union motivations for enlisting Army demonstrated their view of themselves as U.S. citizens despite the during the U.S. Civil War inequities they faced. and the inequities they - Initially excluded from serving in the Civil War, African American men were faced. permitted to join the Union Army when it faced labor shortages; they also served in the Union Navy. African American men enrolled under unequal conditions (e.g., receiving half the salary of White soldiers) and risked enslavement and death if captured by the Confederate Army. - During the war, free Black communities in the North suffered from anti-black Explain how Black violence initiated by those who opposed Black military service and the soldiers’ service possibility of Black citizenship and political equality. Some White 19  impacted Black working-class men, largely Irish immigrants, resented being drafted to fight communities during and in the Civil War and rioted against Black neighborhoods. after the U.S. Civil War. - Many Black soldiers shared their pride in their role in preserving the Union and in ending slavery, even though after the war, they were not immediately celebrated. African-American poetry and photographs preserve an archive of the participation, dignity, and sacrifice of Black soldiers and Black communities during the Civil War. Sources General Order 3 issued by Maj. Gen. Gordon Granger, 1865 Juneteenth celebration in Louisville, 2021 Juneteenth celebration in West Philadelphia, 2019 Juneteenth celebration in Galveston, 2021 Describe the events EK 2.24 that officially ended - The 1863 Emancipation Proclamation, a wartime order, declared freedom legal enslavement in the for enslaved people held in the 11 Confederate states still at war against the United States. Union. After the Civil War, legal enslavement of African Americans continued in the border states and did not end until the ratification of the 13th Amendment in 1865. - The 13th Amendment secured the permanent abolition of slavery in the U.S. It freed four million African Americans, nearly a third of the South’s population, and signified a monumental first step toward achieving freedom, justice, and inclusion in the land of their birth. - The 13th Amendment did not apply to the nearly 10,000 African Americans enslaved by Indigenous nations. The U.S. government negotiated treaties with these nations to end legal slavery in Indian Territory in 1866, though these treaties did not grant freed men rights as tribal citizens. Explain why Juneteenth EK 2.24 is historically and - Juneteenth marks the end of slavery in the last state of rebellion—Texas. It culturally significant. commemorates June 19, 1865, the day that enslaved people in Galveston, Texas, were informed that they were free by Major-General Gordon Granger’s reading of General Order No. 3. This order was the first document to mention racial equality through “an absolute equality of personal rights and rights of property between former masters and slaves.” - African American communities have a long history of commemorating local Freedom Days since the celebration of abolition in New York on July 5th, 1827. Juneteenth is one of the many Freedom Days that African-American communities have consistently celebrated. Over 150 years after its first celebration, it became a federal holiday in 2021. - The earliest Juneteenth celebrations included singing spirituals and wearing new clothing that symbolized newfound freedom, along with feasting and dancing. At that time, Juneteenth was also called Jubilee Day and Emancipation Day. - Juneteenth and other Freedom Days commemorate - African Americans’ ancestors’ roles in the struggle to end legal enslavement in the United States - African Americans’ embrace, postslavery, of a fragile freedom even as they actively engaged in ongoing struggles for equal rights, protections, and opportunities in the United States - African Americans’ commitment to seeking joy and validation among themselves, despite the nation’s belated recognition of this important moment in its own history 20