HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind - Part 1 PDF

HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind Part 1: Brain, Sensation & Perception Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Explain the role of biology in psychology Under...

HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind Part 1: Brain, Sensation & Perception Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Explain the role of biology in psychology Understand the role of the nervous system and the function of its components Explain role of somatic & autonomic nervous systems Describe structure and communication of neurons Understand role of endocrine system and the function of hormones on behaviour Identify main brain structures and their functions Understand role of limbic system and the functions of its components Describe functions of different areas of cerebral cortex and lateralisation …Learning Objectives Understand cognitive neuroscience Explain sleep process, its importance & different stages Identify sleep deprivation effects and sleep disorders Understand impact of psychoactive drugs on consciousness and physiology Distinguish between sensation and perception Understand sensory thresholds and habituation Describe organs, stimuli and receptors involved in 5 senses Understand key visual perception concepts Describe functions of somesthetic senses Biology & Psychology Why are psychologists concerned with biology? Everything psychological is also biological: we are biopsychosocial systems To understand the complex organism of a human being To understand how the brain, nerves, and glands interact to control feelings, thoughts and behaviours The Biological Perspective Biological Perspective: focuses on the links between biology and behaviour Biological Psychology: branch of neuroscience that examines the biological bases of psychological processes, behaviour and learning Psychologists specialising in this branch of neuroscience: Behavioural neuroscientists, neuropsychologists, behaviour geneticists, physiological psychologists, biopsychologists Brain Spinal Cord Peripheral and Autonomic Systems Neurons The Nervous System The Nervous System (NS) Body’s electrochemical communication network Gathers & processes information Produces responses to stimuli Coordinates operations of different cells NS Comprises: Central Nervous System (CNS) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Central Nervous System (CNS) CNS: The central processing unit. Comprises: Brain: interprets and stores information and sends orders to muscles, glands and organs Spinal Cord: pathway connecting the brain and the peripheral nervous system (PNS) collection of neurons and supportive tissue running from the base of the brain down the center of the back, protected by a column of bones (spinal column) Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) PNS transmits information to and from CNS Contains all portions of NS (outside brain & spinal cord) right down to nerves in the tips of fingers and toes Includes sensory & motor nerves connecting CNS to the rest of the body PNS comprises: Autonomic Nervous System Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Controls the functioning of internal organs (e.g., heart, stomach) glands and blood vessels Like an auto pilot, ANS usually operates on its own but may be consciously overridden ANS comprises 2 parts working together, in opposing ways, to adjust the body to changing circumstances: Sympathetic NS (arousing): mobilises bodily resources and increases the output of energy during emotion and stress Parasympathetic NS (calming): – enables body to conserve and – restore energy, slows things down – & keeps things running smoothly Autonomic Nervous System Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall Somatic Nervous System (SNS) Controls the body’s skeletal muscles Includes nerves that are connected to sensory receptors (cells that allow you to sense the world) and skeletal muscles (that permit voluntary action) SNS comprises: Sensory input: carries messages from senses to CNS Motor output: carries messages from CNS to muscles and glands Nervous System (NS) - Summary Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Communication in the NS NS building blocks: neurons or nerve cells: the communication specialists, transmitting information to, from, and within the CNS glia or glia cells: hold neurons together, as well as nourish, insulate, and protect them Structure of the Neuron dendrites: branch-like structures that receive information from other neurons and transmit it to the cell body Soma: the cell body that keeps entire cell alive and determines whether it will fire axon: neuron’s tube-like extension that transmits messages to other neurons, muscles or gland cells axon terminals: terminal branches of axon myelin sheath: fatty insulation surrounding the axon, helps speed the neural impulses myelin sheath degeneration: multiple sclerosis (communication to muscles slows, loss of muscle control) Structure of the Neuron Nerves: Bundles of nerve fibers (mainly axons) in PNS. Human body has 43 pairs of peripheral nerves, 12 pairs in the head Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall How Neurons Communicate Electrical Process: within a neuron Action potential: a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon Information is pushed through the axon based on a process of positive and negative charges of electrical atoms (ions) Chemical Process: between neurons Neurotransmitter: a chemical substance that is released by a transmitting neuron at the synapse and that alters the activity of a receiving neuron Cleaning Up Process Reuptake: process of reabsorbing excess neurotransmitters by the sending neuron How Neurons Communicate  How Neurons Communicate Synapse: the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite of the receiving neuron Psychology, 11th ed. 2015 Myers & Dewall  Some Neurotransmitter Functions Examples of how drugs affect neurotransmitters: Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, allowing dopamine to stay active longer SSRIs, used for depression, block the reuptake of serotonin, extra serotonin improves mood Neurotransmitter Function Malfunctions Dopamine (DA) Influences movement, Oversupply → schizophrenia learning, attention, Undersupply → Parkinson’s disease, depression sensations of pleasure Serotonin (5-HT) Affects mood, appetite, Undersupply → depression, sleep and eating disorders sleep, anxiety Acetylcholine (ACh) Enables muscle action, Oversupply → muscle contraction, convulsions learning and memory Undersupply → Alzheimer's disease Norepinephrine (NE) Helps control alertness and Oversupply → stress and panic disorder; Undersupply → arousal depression Gaba-amino butyric Involved in sleep and inhibits Undersupply → seizures, tremors and insomnia (GABA) movement Endorphins Involved in pain relief Oversupply → insensitivity to pain; Undersupply → pain hypersensitivity, immune problems Endocrine System and Hormones Hindbrain, Midbrain and Forebrain The Limbic System The Hemispheres Brain and Hormones Long Distance Messengers Endocrine System (ES): 2nd communication system interconnected with the NS Hormones: 2nd class of chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands (e.g., pancreas, ovaries, testes, adrenal glands) Hormones travel through the bloodstream to organs and cells far from their point of origin Hormones acting on brain affect interest in sex, food and aggression Both ES & NS produce chemicals that act on receptors elsewhere. NS in fraction of second; ES taking several seconds Endocrine Glands & Hormones Pituitary gland: located in the brain, secretes human growth hormone Pineal gland: located near the base of the cerebrum, secretes melatonin (biological rhythms & sleep) Thyroid gland: found in the neck, secretes thyroxin (growth & metabolism) Pancreas: controls the levels of sugar in the blood, secretes insulin and glucagon Gonads: located in ovaries and testes regulate sexual behavior & reproduction Adrenal glands: located at top of each kidney secrete over 30 hormones (corticoids/steroids) to control stress reactions Endocrine Glands & Hormones Mapping the Brain Lesioning Studies: examining brain areas that are damaged in animals and people; electrical current (via electrode) destroys target neurons Brain Stimulation: electrical stimulation to disrupt/enhance brain areas, and study changes in behaviour and cognition Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): stimulating brain from the inside (invasive) – treatment for Parkinson’s Disease, Seizures, Chronic Pain Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS): stimulating brain from the outside with magnetic impulses (non-invasive) – PTSD & depression Mapping the Brain Mapping the Brain Mapping Structure: Computed Tomography (CT): Using X-rays to map brain “slices” (tumours, stroke damage, metal) Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Using magnetic fields & radio receivers for detailed (and 3D) imaging of brain tissue Mapping the Brain Mapping Function: Electroencephalogram (EEG): amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain’s surface, measured by electrodes placed on the scalp Positron Emission Tomography (PET): visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task Functional MRI (fMRI): tracking changes in blood oxygen levels (increased levels=increased functioning) to study brain activity linked with specific thoughts & behaviour Brain Structures Brain divided into Hindbrain: functions essential to maintain life Midbrain: connects hindbrain and forebrain, important for sensory & motor functions Forebrain: higher functioning (thinking, decision-making) Hindbrain The Brain Stem: oldest & innermost region; extension of spinal cord. Comprises: Medulla: controls heartbeat, breathing Pons: influences sleep, waking & dreaming Reticular Formation: nerve network running from hindbrain through midbrain to forebrain, controlling arousal and attention Cerebellum (little brain): regulates movement and balance; involved in some cognitive functions Forebrain The largest and most highly developed structure. Comprises: Limbic System: emotions, motivation, memory & learning Cerebrum: largest brain structure, controls sensory, motor and cognitive processes Cerebral Hemispheres Cerebral Cortex The Limbic System Thalamus: brain’s sensory control centre; receives information from all senses (except smell) and routes it to higher brain regions responsible for vision, hearing, touch & taste Hypothalamus: regulates survival needs (thirst, hunger, sleeping, body temperature) & emotions (controls pituitary gland- hormones) Hippocampus: forming long-term memories Amygdala: arousal and regulation of emotion; initial response to sensory information (fear) Cingulate Cortex: limbic structure found in cortex; influences emotional & cognitive processing The Limbic System Cerebrum Cerebral Hemispheres: the 2 halves (left & right) of the cerebrum connected by the corpus callosum Cerebral Cortex: the outer layer of the cerebrum (grey matter), covering the cerebral hemispheres responsible for higher mental functions. Comprises: frontal lobes: complex decision-making, planning, memory, personality and social judgement. Includes motor cortex & Broca’s area (speech production) temporal lobes: hearing (primary auditory cortex; auditory association cortex); Wernicke’s area (meaning of words) parietal lobes: receives sensory input for touch & body position (somatosensory cortex) occipital lobes: receive visual information (primary visual cortex; visual association cortex) Subdivisions of Cortex Brain’s Two Hemispheres The 2 hemispheres communicate via the corpus callosum Right hemisphere controls left side of body & Left hemisphere controls right side of body Lateralization: specialization of each hemisphere in particular operations In most mental activities, 2 sides cooperate Brain’s Two Hemispheres The Biological Perspective Experience and the Brain Stimulating environments increases synaptic connections; unused connections are trimmed Plasticity: brain’s ability to adapt to new circumstances Gender differences in the brain Brain scans: Some anatomical and functional differences; however, significance of this is unclear Similarities are greater than differences Brain difference ≠ behavioural difference Differences cannot be replicated Differences could be attributed to behaviour and experiences (rather than gender) Consciousness Sleep Psychoactive Drugs Neurological Functions Biology of Consciousness Cognitive Neuroscience: interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with mental processes (perception, thinking, memory, language) relating specific brain sites to conscious experiences consciousness: generated by action potentials in communication among neurons producing a specific perception, memory, experience in awareness Dual processing: information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious & unconscious tracks Parallel processing: processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously (brain’s natural mode) Selective Attention: conscious awareness focussed on a particular stimulus (cocktail party effect) Sleep Sleep: periodic loss of consciousness; distinct from unconsciousness (coma, anaesthesia) Biological rhythms: natural cycles of activity body goes through (e.g., short: heartbeat, long: menstrual cycle; mood) Sleep-Wake cycle: Circadian Rhythm (circa: about; diem: day) 24-hour cycle Circadian Rhythm controlled by the brain Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) in hypothalamus biological clock responds to light & dark changes (jetlag: clock out of sync) regulates levels of hormones & neurotransmitters melatonin (pineal gland): ↑ dark ↓ light serotonin: ↑ awake ↓ asleep Sleep Stages 2 Sleep Periods (Kleitman 1955) cycle of ~ 90mins: Rapid Eye Movement (REM): relatively active (Non-REM/N): deeper & restful state Sleep cycle: various stages repeated 4-5 times a night Sleep stages defined by brain-wave activity by EEG N1: light sleep, drifting in & out consciousness N2: body temperature & heart rate ↓, breathing shallow, minor noises won’t wake N3 & N4: breathing & pulse ↓, muscles relax, deep sleep, hard to wake (sleepwalking & sleep disorders) REM: brain active, body inactive (paradoxical sleep)  Sleep Stages Invitation to Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Wade, Tavris & Garry Why do we need sleep? Sleep is necessary for bodily restoration and for normal mental functioning Two Theories of Sleep: 1) Adaptive: sleep product of evolution (Siegel, 2009) sleep patterns evolved to avoid predators by sleeping when predators most active 2) Restorative: sleep vital to physical health of body (Brinkman et al., 2021) replenishes chemicals & repairs cellular damage Why do we need sleep? Sleep’s functions Protects: sleep pattern suits ecological needs of each species (bat: 20hrs vs giraffe: 2hrs) Helps recuperation: restore immune system & repair brain tissue (biological makeover) Supports growth: during deep sleep, pituitary gland releases growth hormone for muscle development (↓ as we age) Brain plasticity theory: Helps us restore & rebuild fading memories of day’s experiences (consolidates & strengthens memory) Feeds creative thinking: thinking & learning boost (“why don’t you sleep on it?”) Sleep Deprivation Short-term effects: One night: ↓ attention and concentration, mental flexibility and creativity Few nights: mental & physical consequences, emotional symptoms (irritable, depressed mood) Long-term effects: Cognitive: hallucinations and delusions Emotional: mood disorders (depression, anxiety) Physiological: risk of diabetes & heart disease Sleep Deprivation Why do we need sleep? Video credit: Ted Talk – Matt Walker – A walk through the stages of sleep Common Sleep Disorders Insomnia: recurring problems falling or staying asleep Sleep Apnea: breathing periodically stops (≥10secs) causing choking or gasping Narcolepsy: irresistible and unpredictable day time attacks of sleepiness or actual sleep, lasting 5-30mins Night Terrors: high arousal & appearance of being terrified, during N3 sleep (unlike nightmares), seldom remembered REM behaviour disorder: sleepwalking; dream-enacting behaviour; physically act out vivid, often unpleasant dreams with vocal sounds and sudden, often violent arm and leg movements during REM sleep Psychoactive Drugs Substances that alter perception, mood, thinking, memory or behaviour by changing body’s biochemistry Drug classifications are based on their effects on CNS: Stimulants (amphetamines, cocaine, nicotine, caffeine) Depressants (barbiturates, benzodiazepines, alcohol) Narcotics (opioids) Hallucinogens (manufactured: LSD, PCP, MDMA – also stimulant) Marijuana (non-manufactured; cannabis) Psychoactive Drugs Psychoactive Drugs Physiology of drug effects Affect neurotransmitter levels in the brain Large amounts & frequent use can damage neurons in the brain: impair learning and memory Heavy use can lead to tolerance: increased resistance to a drug’s effects Cessation causes severe withdrawal symptoms Addiction Physical dependence: body needs drug to function; tolerance and withdrawal warning signs Psychological dependence: belief that drug needed to function Drug effects may vary depending on the person’s: previous experience with drug; physical condition; environmental setting; mental state Psychoactive Drugs – Case Examples Definitions Measuring Our Senses Sensation and Perception Sensations & Perceptions Sensation: process by which sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment Perception: process of organising and interpreting sensory information In everyday experiences sensations and perceptions blend into a continuous process Sensation begins with the sense receptors: specialized forms of neurons that convert the energy of a stimulus into electrical impulses that travel along the nerves to brain Measuring the Senses Psychophysics: studies the relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and their effects on psychological experiences Absolute Thresholds: the minimum stimulus energy needed to consciously detect a particular stimulus 50% of the time Difference Thresholds: the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50% of the time Signal Detection Theory: detection of sensory signal comprises a sensory process & a decision process, varies with motivation, alertness & expectation Sensory Adjustments Habituation: tendency of brain to stop attending to constant, unchanging information so that it can focus on what matters (e.g., A/C noise) Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity of sensory receptor cells to unchanging or constant stimulus (e.g., heavily perfumed person) Sensory Deprivation: absence of normal levels of sensory stimulation, effects vary depending on duration and person’s interpretations (e.g., involuntary vs voluntary) Sensory Overload: managed by process of selective attention (focus on what’s important); may also deprive of information that is needed (e.g., texting while walking) Vision Sense organ: the eye Visual Stimulus: light waves that travel in a straight line Perceptual properties of light: Hue: dimension of visual experience specified by colour names and related to the wavelength of light Brightness: lightness; dimension of visual experience related to amount of light emitted from or reflected by an object Saturation: vividness or purity of colour; dimension of visual experience related to the complexity of light waves Visual System Light enters the visual system through the eye Psychology, 4th ed. 2015 Ciccarelli & White Visual receptors: located in retina sending signals to ganglion cells and ultimately to optic nerve Hearing Sense organ: the ear Auditory Stimulus: sound waves (air pressure changes) Perceptual properties of sound: Frequency: cycles of waves per second corresponding to experience of pitch (high, medium, low) – shorter wavelengths → more waves per second → higher frequencies Volume: intensity corresponds to experience of loudness (how soft or loud sound is) – larger wave amplitudes → louder volumes Timbre: complexity or richness in the tone of the sound – increase in number of sounds → greater richness Hearing System Hearing receptors: hair cells (topped by cilia) embedded in the basilar membrane of the organ of Corti, in the interior Outer Ear: side cochlea eardrum & canal Middle Ear: hammer, anvil & stirrup Inner Ear: cochlea Invitation to Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Wade, Tavris & Garry The Chemical Senses: Taste Gustation: the sensation of taste (chemicals: food molecules stimulate thousands of receptors in mouth) Gustation receptors: taste buds: special kinds of neurons in mouth (primarily tongue, but also throat, inside cheeks, roof of mouth, & in gut) taste buds line walls of papillae (bumps) on tongue 4 basic tastes: salty, sour, bitter, sweet Some researchers consider 5th taste: umami (savory meaty taste, MSG); controversial as not perceptible in most foods The Chemical Senses: Smell Olfaction (olfactory sense): the ability to smell odors (chemicals: substance molecules suspended in air) Sense organ: nose Olfactory receptor cells: specialized neurons embedded in a tiny patch of mucous membrane in the upper part of nasal passage, just beneath eyes Olfactory bulbs: areas of brain located just above sinus cavity and just below frontal lobes that receive information from olfactory receptor cells The Chemical Senses: Smell Exploring Psychology, 6th ed. 2015 Myers Somesthetic Senses Somesthetic Senses: the body senses (soma: body; esthetic: feeling), comprising: – Skin senses – Proprioceptive senses – Kinesthetic sense – Vestibular senses Skin Senses: touch, pressure, temperature & pain Sensory receptors in the skin Pain is both a skin sense and an internal sense Gate control theory: experience of pain depends on whether neural impulses get past a “gate” in the spinal cord and reach the brain Somesthetic Senses Kinesthetic Sense: body’s sense of movement & position in space – Receptors located in muscles, tendons & joints (proprioceptors) Vestibular Senses: sensations of movement, balance, & body position – Sense organs: vestibular organs (otolith & semicircular organs) located in ear – Sensory conflict theory: explanation of motion sickness (information from eyes conflicts with information from vestibular senses) The Brain and the Mind – Part 1 of 2 End HSC1010 The Brain and the Mind Part 2: Thinking & Memory Presented by: Dr Peter Tay, Assistant Professor in Psychology Developed by: Dr Angela Papadimitriou, Clinical Psychologist & Dr Peter Tay Learning Objectives Understand cognition Distinguish between problem solving and decision making Describe different methods of problem solving Understand barriers to problem solving Describe different types of thinking and reasoning Understand intelligence Understand how intelligence is measured, main intelligence tests, and applications of IQ testing Describe principles for development of intelligence tests Define intelligence extremes Identify influences on intelligence …Learning Objectives Describe memory, its key process and models Explain the Information Processing Model of memory Distinguish between sensory and short-term memory Understand long-term memory, its different types and organisation models Differentiate retrieval, recall, and recognition Describe different types of memory conditions and their causes Identify requirements and techniques for healthy memory Thinking Thinking (Cognition): mental activities that go on in the brain when processing, organising, understanding, or communicating information to others Cognitive Processing Problem solving: a cognitive process of the brain at the higher cognitive layer that searches a solution for a given problem or finds a path to reach a given goal (Wang, 2007) Decision making: while decision making refers to the cognitive process of choosing between two or more alternatives, ranging from the relatively clear cut to the complex ones (APA Dictionary) Problem Solving Methods Trial & Error: trying several solutions until one works (e.g., trying to recall a password) Algorithm: a methodical, step-by-step procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem (e.g., math formula, recipes) Slower but more accurate than heuristic Heuristic: rule of thumb (judgemental shortcuts), based on prior experiences, that suggests a course of action without guaranteeing an optimal solution. Four types: Representativeness Availability Working backward Sub-goals Heuristics Representativeness Heuristic: a rule of thumb for judging the probability of membership in a category by how well an object/person is representative of that category Tendency to overgeneralize from few Who is the convicted characteristics or observations felon? Availability Heuristic: estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on immediate examples that come to mind if something can be recalled it must be important Falling coconuts kill 150 people per year (10 times more than sharks), but you will remember the shark attacks due to news reports Heuristics Working Backward: attempting to solve a problem by working from the goal backward to the starting point Sometimes working from the end point is faster Sub-goals: breaking large problem into smaller, more manageable goals, so that as each sub-goal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer Problem Solving Methods Insight: sudden realization of a problem’s solution “aha!” moment (e.g., getting jokes) contrasts with strategy based solutions Intuition: effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought (“gut feeling”) contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning Problem Solving Barriers Functional Fixedness: Fixated on thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions resulting in a mental block Mental Set: tendency to solve problems using approaches that worked previously for similar problems Not helpful when problem requires new approach Confirmation Bias: tendency to favour information that confirms one’s existing beliefs or theories, while ignoring any contradicting evidence E.g., Reading your horoscope and looking for things that agree with what was said to justify what you read  Problem Solving Barriers The String Problem: How do you tie the two strings together if you cannot reach them both at the same time? Solution: Use the pliers as a pendulum to swing the second string closer to you.  Problem Solving Barriers Solution: The Dot Mental set causes Problem: Can people to think of you draw four the dots as straight lines so representing a box, that they pass and they try to through all nine draw the line while dots without staying in the box. lifting your The only way to pencil from the connect all nine page and dots without lifting without the pencil from the touching any paper is to draw dot more than the lines so they once? extend out of the box of dots. Types of Thinking Convergent thinking: all thinking pointed to one solution (problem solving) Divergent thinking: generating more than one solution (creative thinking) Creative thinking: combination of flexibility in thinking and reorganization of understanding to produce innovative ideas and new solutions Thinking Creatively Reasoning Reasoning: purposeful mental activity that involves drawing conclusions from observations, facts, or assumptions. Three types of reasoning: Formal reasoning: algorithms & formal logic (e.g., IQ test, MCQ exam); problems with one (best) solution Informal reasoning: heuristics; problems often with no single correct solution that require evaluation of opposing points view (dialectical reasoning) Reflective Judgement (Critical Thinking): ability to evaluate and integrate evidence, consider alternative interpretations and reach a defensible conclusion many people never develop this ability Reasoning shares the same barriers as problem solving Definitions and Theories Measuring Intelligence Influences of Intelligence Language and Thought Intelligence Intelligence Intelligence: the ability to learn from experience, acquire knowledge, act purposefully, or adapt to new situations Influential Theories of Intelligence: Spearman’s General Intelligence Factor (g factor) Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence Social Intelligence: Emotional Intelligence Emotional Intelligence Social Intelligence (APA dictionary, 2022): “know-how” knowledge in social situations and self-management (vs. abstract intelligence and concrete intelligence) Emotional Intelligence (EI): the ability to perceive, understand, manage and use emotions Popularised by Goleman’s (1995) Emotional Intelligence EI as important as intellectual intelligence EI can be taught and acquired/developed EI consists of 4 abilities (Mayer & Salovey, 1997): to perceive and appraise emotions accurately to access and evoke emotions when they facilitate cognition to comprehend emotional language and make use of emotional information to regulate one’s own and others’ emotions EI viewed as powerful influence on success in life Measuring Intelligence Intelligence Test: assessing person’s mental abilities, in comparison to others (age-peers) Most influential intelligence tests: Mental Ability Test (Binet, 1904; Binet & Simon, 1905) Stanford-Binet Test (Terman, 1916) Wechsler Tests Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (1939) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) (1949) Wechsler Preschool & Primary Scale of Intelligence (1967) Measuring Intelligence Chronological age (CA): person’s age in years Mental age (MA) measure of intelligence test performance (Binet, 1904) age that most typically corresponds to a given level of performance child performing as well as average 8yr old = mental age of 8 Intelligence Quotient (IQ) – Stern (1912): number representing a measure of intelligence ratio of mental age (MA) to chronological age (CA) multiplied by 100: IQ= MA/CA x 100 allows comparison of intelligence levels of people from different age groups Stanford-Binet Test Yields IQ score (MA/CA X 100), score of 100 is average Assesses variety of verbal and nonverbal skills Composite score estimate of g factor (general intelligence) Comprises 10 subtests, assessing reasoning (verbal, quantitative, visual/abstract) and memory (short-term) In its 5th revision (SB5, Roid 2003)  Wechsler Tests Developed to address Stanford-Binet’s test criticisms (e.g., 1 score, child-focused) Age-based intelligence tests WAIS (adults); WISC (children); WPPSI (preschool children) In its 4th revision, most popular IQ test Comprises 10 subtests Yields 4 index scores: Verbal Comprehension (VCI), Perceptual Reasoning (PRI), Working Memory (WMI), and Processing Speed (PSI) WAIS-IV (new subtests)  Test Construction Principles Intelligence tests must meet 3 criteria: 1. Standardization 2. Reliability 3. Validity Both Stanford-Binet & Wechsler Tests meet the criteria Standardization Standardization: implies uniformity of procedure in administering and scoring test in large group of people norms: standardization group scores most intelligence tests follow a normal curve: distribution (bell-shaped curve) of scores around mean (average) score Reliability Reliability: test produces same results each time given to same people Validity Validity: test measures what it’s supposed to measure or predict IQ Usefulness Usefulness of IQ tests generally valid for predicting academic success & job performance identifies people who differ greatly from those of average intelligence (intelligence extremes) Neuropsychology Head injury, learning disabilities, neuropsychological disorders Culturally-fair (not completely free of cultural bias) Word of caution: IQ tests need to be administered and interpreted by well-trained and specialist psychologists Intelligence Extremes A way of assessing the validity and significance of any test is to compare people who score at the 2 extremes of the normal curve 1. The Low Extreme: Intellectual Disability deficits in mental ability (IQ < 70) & adaptive behaviour can vary from mild to severe causes of developmental delay include: chromosome & genetic disorders (e.g., down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, fetal alcohol syndrome) deprived environments drug and alcohol dietary deficiencies Intelligence Extremes 2. The High Extreme: Giftedness IQ ≥ 130 (top 2% upper end of curve), IQ>140: geniuses Giftedness generally guarantees success Terman (1925 longitudinal study) confirmed this Gifted children typically develop into well-adjusted adults, except when pushed to achieve at young ages Geniuses: some social & behavioural adjustment problems Influences on Intelligence Nature (genetic) vs. Nurture (experience) Debate Stronger correlations for IQ scores as genetic relatedness ↑ (identical twins), though not 100% IQ heritability estimated at 0.50 (experience involved) IQ scores steadily ↑ over time in modern countries (Flynn effect) The Bell Curve book widely criticized about heritability of intelligence claims based on unpublished studies evidence methodological flawed ignored experience & culture Influences on Intelligence No significant relationship between ethnicity & IQ Genetic explanations of “black-white” differences in IQ have used heritability estimates based mainly on white samples Environmental influences on intelligence: poor prenatal care malnutrition exposure to toxins stressful family circumstances living in an impoverished & disadvantaged neighbourhood Intellectual performance is strongly influenced by motivation and self-discipline Influenced by cultural expectations, attitudes toward education and beliefs about origins of mental abilities Language & Thought Does language influence thought or does thinking influence language? (Piaget & Vygotsky) Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis (Whorf hypothesis): language controls the development of thought processes and concepts Cognitive Universalism: concepts are universal and influence the development of language Language & thought interplay: thinking ↔ language Critical period for language development 2-7 years old Child learning a 2nd language < 7 will have no accent Cognitive Fitness Cognitive fitness: a state of optimized ability to reason, remember, learn, plan, and adapt (Gilkey & Kilts, 2007). Examples of mental activities can help keep the brain fit: Playing a musical instrument, reading etc. Definitions and Theories Types of Memory Retrieval, Recall and Recognition Memory Conditions and Healthy Memory Memory Memory Memory: active system that encodes information received from the senses, organises and stores the information, and then retrieves it when required Memory Processes Memory comprises 3 processes: Encoding Storage Retrieval Encoding: transforming incoming information (sensory input) into a form that can be stored Storage: holding information until it is needed Retrieval: locating stored information in memory and getting it out so that it can be used Models of Memory Three main models of memory: 1. Information Processing Model: information for storage is processed in series of 3 stages (Stage Model) 2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model: simultaneous processing of information across multiple neural networks 3. Levels-of-Processing Model: information is processed according to its meaning; deeper level of processing→ longer retention All 3 models useful, each focused on different aspects of memory Information-Processing Model Model with a “big-picture” view of memory system Memory comprises 3 systems (stages) Sensory Memory Sensory Memory: “split second” holding tank for all sensory information Iconic Memory (Visual) Duration: < 1 second Capacity: ≤ 20 items Levels of Awareness: Preconscious Unconscious Echoic Memory (Auditory) Duration: < 3 second Capacity: 1-2 items Attention Short-Term Levels of Awareness: Memory Preconscious Unconscious Other Senses Not Well Studied  Sensory Memory Examples Tone Fixation Display Tone occurs Report Sperling’s (1960) study of 1/20 second either before sensory memory: display goes off After participants had or delay of.15, fixated on the cross, the.30,.50 or 1 letters were flashed on second the screen just long enough to create a visual afterimage. Pitch of tone High, medium and low signals which tones signalled which row to report rows of letters to report. Because subjects had to rely on the afterimage to report the letters, Sperling (196) was able to measure how rapidly the afterimage disappeared by varying the delay between the Person 1: “What is the time?” display and the signal to report. Person 2: “What did you say? Oh, 10:30” 2nd person hears question after asking “what did you say?” Echoic memory, holds the sound of the question for 1-2secs. Even if you are not paying attention to words when spoken, you can “hear” them when you turn your attention to them. Short-Term Memory (STM) STM: memory’s “notepad”; holds information briefly (~30 secs) Selective attention: entry ticket for information to be transferred from sensory to STM (focused attention) Working Memory: processes information in STM STM capacity is limited: Miller’s (1956) digit span test (“magic number 7”) Instructor reads the first row of numbers to participant and asks them to repeat the sequence immediately. If participant gets this row correct, the instructor moves on to the next row until the participant makes an error Miller’s magic number 7 STM Boosts Chunking: combining information into meaningful bits (chunks) to improve STM capacity Rehearsal: repeating bits of information in one’s head to maintain it in STM Rehearsal & STM susceptible to interference if counting interrupted have to start over If introduced to group of people, tend to remember the first few people Long-Term Memory (LTM) LTM: Relatively permanent and limitless memory depot of well learned and rehearsed information Elaborative rehearsal: transferring information from STM to LTM through meaningful connections LTM types: Explicit / Declarative: conscious recall of factual information (“knowing that”) Semantic Memory: general knowledge Episodic Memory: personal recollections Implicit / Non-declarative: does not require conscious recall, but implicit in actions (“knowing how to”) Procedural Memory: motor skills & habits Conditioned Memory: automatic conditioned responses Priming: retrieval based on earlier experience  LTM Overview LONG TERM MEMORY Explicit (Declarative) Memory Implicit (Non- Declarative) Memory Conscious Recall Without Conscious Recall Processed in hippocampus & frontal Processed in cerebellum & basal lobe ganglia Episodic Conditioned Memory Priming Semantic Personal experiences & Procedural Memory motor skills conditioned responses Retrieval based on earlier Facts and general events (first day at & habits (drive car, play piano) (salivating for favourite food, experience (using word knowledge (flags) school, wedding night) anxious at dentist) recently read) LTM Organization LTM organized by related meanings & concepts for fast retrieval Various proposed models. Most prominent: Semantic Network Model: information stored in connected fashion (related concepts closely located) Parallel Distributed Processing Model: simultaneous access of connected information across multiple networks Retrieval Retrieval: process of accessing information stored in LTM Retrieval Cues: prompts to remember stored information Priming: activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory (e.g., smelling something that triggers memory of something we thought we had forgotten) Context-dependent: memory improves due to being in location similar to when memory was formed (e.g., eyewitnesses taken to scene of crime) State-dependent: memory improves due to being in a mood/state similar to when memory was formed (e.g., recalling happy memories when feeling happy) Two types of retrieval: Recall & Recognition Recall Recall: retrieving information not currently in conscious awareness but learnt previously (e.g., essay exam) Recall Issues Tip of the tongue: being aware of knowing something and confident of being able to remember it eventually, but not being able to retrieve it at that point in time What you may call it Serial position effect: tendency when learning a long list of information to recall more easily the first items (primacy effect) and last items (recency effect) Recognition Recognition: identifying items previously learnt from a list (e.g., MCQ) Recognition Issues False positive: falsely recognizing some stimulus that is not actually in memory Accuracy of eyewitness testimony (Elizabeth Loftus & Eyewitness study) LTM Reconstruction Memory is not a recording – it is a constructive process Constructive processing: retrieval of memories in which those memories are altered, revised, or influenced by newer information Repetition increases vividness of constructive memories as well as our conviction in those memories Hindsight Bias: tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it (“I knew it all along”)  LTM Reconstruction Misinformation effect: incorporation of inaccurate information into actual memory False Memory Syndrome: creation of inaccurate memories usually through suggestion of others (e.g., child testimony), but also hypnosis Events must plausible Events could have happened to them personally Memory Conditions Organic amnesia: physical damage to the brain (due to disease, accident, surgery, or drugs) causing memory loss Retrograde: loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury or onset of disease Anterograde: inability to form new memories after the injury or onset of disease Memory Conditions Alzheimer's Disease: irreversible, progressive brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills, and eventually the ability to carry out the simplest task starts as anterograde amnesia but as disease progresses retrograde amnesia can occur as well worldwide, nearly 44 million (only 1 in 4 diagnosed) no cure, but various drugs for slowing or stopping progression risk factors include: ↑cholesterol, ↑blood pressure, smoking, obesity, Type II diabetes Memory Conditions Infantile Amnesia: inability to remember clearly or accurately the first years of life (prior to age of 3) relating to explicit memories explicit memories are retained after development of one’s personal story (autobiographical memory) language acquisition Psychogenic amnesia: loss of memory and important personal information due to a traumatic event (abuse in childhood, witnessing murder as an adult) brain blocks ability to recall the event no physiological basis for disruption (not organic) retrograde amnesia woman witnessing a murder: forgets her name, identity, how she got to that place Healthy Memory Sleep sleep deprivation severely interferes with hippocampal function and memory new information better consolidated while sleeping Diet – Food rich in: omega-3 fatty acid helps memory cells communicate (e.g., salmon, tuna, walnuts) antioxidants (e.g., blueberries, spinach, green tea) vitamin B (e.g., spinach, broccoli, soybeans) Exercise Improves learning and mental performance Higher cardio vascular activity ↑verbal memory (Guadagni et al., 2020) Aerobic training ↑ brain connectivity (Voss et al., 2020) Helps prevent and treat dementia, Alzheimer's & brain aging Reduces sensitivity to stress, depression and anxiety (Anderson & Shivakumar, 2013) Healthy Memory Behavioural Techniques Rehearse and test new material Make material meaningful (form stories) Activate retrieval cues to jog your memory Use mnemonics (chunking, acronyms, rhymes) Minimise interference (study before sleep) Interleaving (avoid back-to-back study of same subject/s) The Brain and the Mind – Part 2 of 2 End