Lavonne Theory Booklet PDF

THEORY BOOKLET  academy of baking science a nd pa stry a rts, indi a Student Name: Batch: Year: only for internal circulation PA RT I 1 EQUIPMENT & TOOLS 5 2 INGREDIENTS 20 3 BREAD 54 4 QUICK BREAD 62 5 COOKIES...

THEORY BOOKLET  academy of baking science a nd pa stry a rts, indi a Student Name: Batch: Year: only for internal circulation PA RT I 1 EQUIPMENT & TOOLS 5 2 INGREDIENTS 20 3 BREAD 54 4 QUICK BREAD 62 5 COOKIES 64 6 CAKES AND SPONGES 69 7 MERINGUE 71 8 CUSTARDS & CREAMS 73 9 CLASSICAL FRENCH 79 PASTRIES 79 10 CHOCOLATE 89 11 CONFECTIONS 100 12 DESSERTS 106 GLOSSARY 113 1 EQUIPMENT & TOOLS CHILLERS/ REFRIGERATORS - A machine which functions with the principle of Vapour Compression cycle, in which the heat is extracted from the product/ item via evaporation of a refrigerant followed by compres- sion and condensing. - The ideal temperature is above 1°C and below 4°C. The capacity varies from 100 litres to 700 litres. - The choice of refrigerators, its overall size and capacity depends on the following factors: 1. Size of the Bakery/Pastry kitchen 2. Expected volume of sale 3. Availability of other cold storage means - A refrigerator should be defrosted weekly. Any spills must be mopped immediately and the cabinet must be washed with soap solution or soda bicarbonate and water. FREEZER - A freezer is also a machine which operates with the Vapour Compression cycle. A freezer cools anything that is kept within an enclosed area upto -18ºC. - The temperature is maintained at below 0ºC. - Deep freezer is generally maintained at -18ºC. It can be of three types: a) The chest type with a top opening lid b) The upright type with front opening lid c) A combination of both - Freezers should be defrosted at least once a month depending on the usage. Wash the in- sides with a soap solution of soda bicarbonate and water and dry completely before turning it on. BLAST FREEZER - Blast freezers are sometimes referred to as shock freezers. - A blast freezer is used to rapidly bring down the temperature of food below 0 °C. - It works by blowing cold air around the food with the help of a fan. The air temperature in a blast freezer can be as low as -40ºC , quick enough to obtain micro-crystallisation, keeping all the qualities of food whole. | 5 PROOFER - Proofer or proving cabinets are cabinets with temperature and humidity control. - Used for keeping fermented goods like bread, rolls, buns, etc., during fermentation period so that ideal conditions can be provided during fermentation. They can be separate chambers or attached to the oven. - These should be keptclean; water should be removed and replaced after every few days. - Most proofers allow you to adjust the temperature from 21ºC to 46ºC. Proofing temperature can vary from 26ºC to 32ºC, based on the product being made. Generally, the ideal proofing temperature is 31.2ºC. OVEN - An oven is a thermally insulated chamber used for the heating, baking or drying of a sub- stance, most commonly used for food products. - This may be heated with coal, gas or electricity. - Depending on the volume of operations, you can buy a single deck or a double deck or a three deck oven. - Ovens can also have a proofing chamber attached to it. Electric ovens have a thermostat that allows easier temperature control and it should be possible to control both top and bot- tom heating from separate knobs. - Ovens should be kept clean. Spillage should be cleaned immediately. Periodic checking by a professional should be done. They should be placed 12 inches above ground to facilitate cleaning. DAMPENER - Some ovens are fitted with a dampener. This function controls the vent of the oven, which de- termines whether the excess moisture released by a food item will stay inside the baking chamber. - If the dampener / vent is closed, then the moisture will stay inside the chamber creating humidity and might result in a soggybread with a moist texture, for example. - If the dampener / vent is open, then the bread will have a crunchy crust with the correct tex- ture. STEAM INJECTION - This refers to the addition of steam (water injected in a hot oven will transform to steam im- mediately) to the baking chamber, in order to create an effect on the food item. In conditions of dryness and high heat, the dough will have rapid evaporation of the water from the top surface. - This will cause the formation of a dry, inelastic shell on the surface which restricts the oven spring or rising of the product. This also slows down the rate of heat transfer to the inte- rior of the bread. - The steam injection must be done at the beginning of the baking process, providing favourable conditions for the product. It preserves the elasticity of the surface so that the product may rise correctly during the oven- spring phase. The moisture condensation also creates a porous surface (working in part with starch gelatinisation). The steam condensing on the dough also allows the product to heat up quickly. 6 | TYPES OF OVENS Material Type Description Heat source Heat Transfer used Transfer of heat through heated Ceramic, air, and/or direct Natural gas, Conduction,Ra- Deck Steel, contact with the electricity diation Brick base/deck of the oven Uses fans to cir- culate heated Convection, Electricity, Convection air, which cooks Conduction, Steel Naturalgas food faster and Radiation more evenly Baking cham- ber made of fire-proof brick, con- crete, stone Wood, Natur- Stone, Brick Conduction or clay. al gas Brick Wood-fired or coal-fired, nowadays gas/ electricity. Used to bake, toast, grill or OTG (Oven reheat small Radiation, Steel, Oth- -Toaster Electricity amounts of Conduction eralloys -Grill) food,uses heating coils | 7  Microwaves (ra- diowaves) at a particular fre- quency break Microwave, Microwave the water mole- Electricity Steel Conduction cules, releasing heatand thereby cooking the food item DOUGH SHEETER - The Dough Sheeter is an electric appliance that mechanically rolls dough and pastry to a uniform thickness. - The device consists of a cloth conveyor belt that moves beneath a stationary rolling pin. The height of the pin is adjusted to change the thickness of the product. - Depending on size of operations: Table and floor models are both available. PLANETARY MIXER/ TABLE TOP - The electric mixer is indispensable in the commercial kitchen, and several types are found in most professional kitchens/ bakeshops. The selection of mixer depends on various fac- tors such as the type of products being mixed and the volume of production required. Ver- tical planetary mixers are most common because of their versatility and they come in vari- ous sizes. A U-shaped arm holds a metal mixing bowl in place; the selected fixing attach- ment fits into the rotating head. - The three common mixing attachments are 1. Whisk: used for aeration or foaming applications, eg: egg whites for meringue / whip- ping cream, etc. 2. Paddle: used for generic mixing applications, particularly those which might be too heavy for the delicate whip / products which do not require too much aeration, eg: creaming butter and sugar, forming certain cookie doughs, etc. 3. Hook or dough arm: used for mixing / kneading bread doughs, it is a hook-like tool which develops gluten during the mixing quickly and efficiently. - Bench models range in capacity from 4 to 18 litres, whereas floor mixers can hold as much as 140 litres. 8 | FOOD PROCESSOR - Food processors are similar to blenders in many forms. A food processor typically requires little to no liquid during use, unlike a blender, which requires a set amount of liquid in order for the blade to properly blend the food. - Foods Processors are used to blend, chop, dice, and slice, allowing for quicker meal prepa- ration. IMMERSION BLENDER - An immersion blender is a kitchen blade grinder used to blend ingredients or purée food in the container in which they are being prepared. A stick blender comprises of an electric mo- tor driving rotating cutting blades at the end of a shaft which can be immersed in the food being blended, inside a housing which can be held by hand. Some can be used while a pan is on a stove. ICE CREAM CHURNER - An ice cream churner is electric or manual equipment which freezes a mixture and simultane- ously churns it so as to aerate and keep the ice crystals small (less than 50 μm- micron). A mo- tor driven paddle rotates and scrapes the bowl/tank which is cooled by a refrigeration unit. These are of three types: Countertop Ice Cream Makers - This machine comes with a double-walled bowl filled up with a liquid of urea and distilled wa- ter between the walls. Through this special liquid, it is possible to freeze the machine to well below the normal freezing range of water in about 24 hours. As the mixture comes into con- tact with the frozen walls of the bowl, it complete- ly freezes and the paddle is switched on, stirring continuously. Freezer Unit Ice Cream Maker - Although this machine closely resembles the countertop variety, it is not double-walled. Place it inside a freezer and plug it into an external power outlet. The main advantage with this sys- tem as compared to the double-walled counter-top model is that you can make multiple batches without having to wait for the bowl to refreeze. Built-in Ice Cream Maker - This is the largest and most efficient type of ice cream maker available. You simply switch on the machine and leave it to run for a couple of minutes, then pour the mixture for paddling. This prepares ice cream in about 20 minutes. And since coolants are built-in, the bowl does not need to be chilled beforehand. VACUUM SEALING MACHINE - Vacuum packing is a method of packing that removes air from the package prior to sealing. A variety of machines are available, however a single chamber is the most common one. The food is placed in a plastic packaging film, the bag is placed in the chamber with is open end fixed over the sealer. The lid secures the bag between the sealers and creates vacuum by pumping all the air inside the chamber prior to sealing. | 9 WEIGHING SCALE - A weighing scale or weighing balance is a device used to measure mass or weight of a prod- uct/ ingredient etc.. Electronic scales use strain gauge load cell. Strain gauge is a device used to measure the strain of an object, and load cell censor, as electronic device used to convert a force in to an electrical signal displayed on the LCD screen. SPRAY COMPRESSOR - A spray compressor is a device that converts power into potential energy stored in pressur- ized air. The com- pressor forces more and more air into a storage tank, increasing the pres- sure. When the tank pressure reaches maximum, the compressor shuts off. The compressed air is then held in the tank until use. This compressed air is released with the help of gun at- tached with a cup holding colour. - When the trigger is pressed, the colour mixes with the air and is dispersed. Commonly the compressors have a range between 5-7 horsepower. The consistency of the paint/colour and the patter can be changed using the adjustable nozzle. The gun and its attachments must be cleaned thoroughly after every use. The compres- sor must be inspected at least once in 6 months. DIFFERENT TYPES OF TRAYS 1. Sheet pan 2. Perforated tray 3. Box trays - The most basic sheet pan is literally a sheet of metal. Pans / trays are commonly made from aluminium or stainless steel. Commercial sheet pans are made from aluminised steel which combines the conductive properties of aluminium with the strength of steel. - The universal size for full trays is 60 cm by 40 cm, and half trays are 30 cm by 40 cm. Trays may be a flat sheet (hence the name, sheet pan) or with a raised edge or lip which resembles a box (box tray). - Apart from these distinctions, the tray may also be perforated which allows for heat and steam to move freely through the items placed on the tray and is conducive to the baking process. BLOWTORCH - A pressurised gas chamber fitted with a device to intensify combustion by means of a blast of air/oxygen. It is used for applying flame and heat to various applications such as caramelisa- tion and browning of products. Butane or propane is used as fuel, depending on the model. SIPHON GUN - A siphon gun is used for whipping, making fresh soda, speeding up marinating, infusing fruit, or topping a dish with foam or flavour or textural contrast. These were originally designed for aerating creams high in fat. - The siphon requires cartridges of gas, also called as charges, to pressurise the chamber hold- ing liquid. The gas can either be carbon dioxide (best used for carbonation) or nitrous oxide (dissolves in fat better than in water, hence high-fat liquids foam better). - You can, of course foam any liquid thick enough to hold bubbles. 10 | - Each cartridge holds 8g of gas and can only be used once. Two cartridges are typically suffi- cient to charge a 1 litre-siphon gun. THERMOMETERS - Thermometers have many uses in the bakery, and there are many types of specialised ther- mometers. The sugar thermometer, also called a candy thermometer, is one of the most im- portant. It is used for measuring the temperature, and hence the concentration, of boiling sugar syrups. - The chocolate thermometer, also called as infrared thermometer is used for tempering choco- late. Other thermometers measure the temperature of bread doughs, frying fat, and the inte- riors of ovens, refrigerators, and freezers (to check the accuracy of the equipment’s thermo- stat). 1. Bimetallic stem / Dial thermometer – works based on the thermal expansion / contraction between two specific metals. The two metals (hence the name bimetallic) expand at different rates depending on the temperature and this causes the needle on the dial to move and indi- cate the temperature of the product. The sensing area is extends from a dimple found on the stem, to the tip of the probe. 2. Thermistor – a combination of the words of “thermal” and “resistor”, this is a resistance ther- mometer wherein the resistance of the metal conductor is dependent on temperature change and hence we derive the temperature. 3. Thermocouple – composed of two metal conductors that generate a voltage when there are temperature differences between them. This in turn allows us to measure the temperature ac- curately. Thermistors and thermocouples display the temperatures digitally. The sensing area is at the tip of the probe. Hence, they are good for checking the temperature of both thick and thin foods. They are made in several styles and sizes. 1. Immersion – This type is with a longer stem and hence is useful to check the temperature of liquids. 2. Surface – Has a flat knob at the end of the probe, and hence is used to check temperature of flat surfaces like griddles, pans, etc. 3. Penetration – A thinner tip, especially useful for checking the temperature of thin foods, such as burger patties, fish fillets, etc. 4. Air probes – Consists of tube-like stem with a metal which expands / contracts based on atmospheric temperature Laser Thermometers - This thermometer consists of a lens to focus the infrared (IR) energy or thermal radiation on to a sensor, which converts the energy to an electrical signal that can be displayed in units of | 11  temperature. This facilitates temperature measurement from a distance without contact with the object. This decreases the chances of cross-contamination between products. Candy Thermometer - Also known as a sugar thermometer, it is a particular thermometer to measure the tempera- ture and hence the stage of a cooking sugar solution. With changes in temperature, the mer- cury in the glass expands andcontracts, and thus the temperature can be derived. HEAT GUN - A heat gun is a device used to emit a stream of hot air, usually at temperatures between 100 °C and 550 °C. - It is used in pastry in order to apply heat for certain applications such as gentle and quick reheating of mousses and chocolate, and also to help release cold products from metal moulds. CHOPPING BOARDS - A chopping or cutting board is a durable board on which to place food for cutting. They are commonly made of wood or plastic and come various widths and sizes. Chopping boards must be washed and sanitized after every use. - Avoid stacking after washing. - Store in a cool and dry place after they are completely dry. Chopping boards are utilized based on colour. The aim of a colour coding system is to prevent cross contamination and contribute to hygiene standards. COLOUR CODING Red Raw red meat Blue Seafood Yellow Raw poultry Brown Cooked meat Green Vegetables / fruits White Baked products / Dairy Purple Allergenic foods 12 | KNIVES A knife is a hand held cutting tool widely used across kitchens. High carbon stainless steel is most frequently used to forge the blade. Knife handles are made of various materials, includ- ing hard woods, textured metal, and composition materials (vinyl). The handle is either stuck to the blade or attached with rivets. There are different types of knives : 1. Chef Knife – Also called a cook’s knife, it has a broad blade tapering to a point. This allows the knife to rock back and forth for fast mincing/chopping. It can be used for almost every task in the kitchen. 2. Paring knife – A thin, 3-4 inch blade with a pointed tip. It can be used for cutting and peeling fruits and vegetables with precision and ease. The common styles include spear point and bird’s beak, named after the shape of the point. 3. Bread knife – A long, serrated knife which is used for cutting bread and cakes. Designed in such a waythat allows a sawing motion without pushing down on the layers. 4. Palette knife – A long, flexible round-ended blade which is used for icing / frosting cakes or applyingproducts evenly to a flat surface. PEELER - A peeler is a kitchen tool consisting of a slotted metal blade attached to a handle that is used to remove theouter layer of certain vegetables and fruits. STRAINER - A round-bottomed, cup shaped tool made of screen mesh or perforated metal, with a handle on one side. Used for separating solids from liquids, such as draining the juice from fruit. Screen-mesh strainers can alsobe used for sifting dry ingredients, like a sieve. SIEVE - A round metal screen supported in a stainless-steel hoop frame. It is used for sifting flour and other dry ingredients. Also called a drum sieve or tamis (pronounced tah-mee). CHINOIS - A chinois is a conical strainer with a fine mesh, used mostly for straining sauces. TWEEZER - Tweezers are small tools used for picking up too small objects to be easily handled with the human fingers. The tips can be serrated for better grip and precision. ROLLING PINS - Used to roll out doughs , it is simply a solid hardwood rod, about 2 inches thick and 20 inches long. A French rolling pin is about 2 inches thick at the centre and tapered towards the ends. - It is useful for rolling pie doughs and other doughs that must be rolled to a circular shape. For large quantities or heavy work, a heavy ball-bearing pin may be used. This pin is 3-4 inches thick and has a swivelling rod inserted through the centre, with a handle at each end. - Textured rolling pins are used to emboss designs, such as basket weave pattern, in sheets of marzipan and pastillage. | 13 ZESTER - A zester is a kitchen utensil used for obtaining zest from lemons and other citrus fruits. A kitchen zester is approximately 4 inches long with a handle and a curved metal end, the top of which is perforated with a row of round holes with sharpened rims. BREAD LAME (LA-HM) - Bread lame is a tool with a double-sided thin sharp blade which is used to splash the tops of bread loaves in artisan baking. - Often the blade’s cutting edge will be slightly concave-shaped, which allows users to cut flaps considerable thinner than would be possible with a straight blade. The handle of a lame could be made of plastic, metal or wood. MEASURING JUG - A measuring jug, also called as a measuring cup or litre jug is primarily used to measure the volume of liquid. They may be made of plastic, glass, or metal. WHISK - A whisk, also called as whips are loops of stainless-steel wire fastened to a handle. Whips with a few stiff wires are used for mixing and blending, and whips with many flexible wires are used for whipping foams, such as whipped cream and egg foams. SPATULA - A spatula is a hand-held tool that is used for lifting, flipping, or spreading. The blade is usually flexible. They are made of plastic or metal, but wooden, rubber and silicone ones are also used. SCRAPERS - Two types: Bench scraper, Bowl scraper and Chocolate scraper - A bench scraper, also called a dough scraper, is a small rectangle of stainless steel with a handle along one of the long edges. It is used for cutting and portioning dough and for scrap- ing tabletops. - A bowl scraper is a piece of plastic about the same size, but with one curved edge and no handle. It is used for scraping out the contents of mixing bowls. - A chocolate scraper is a metal scraper with a substantial handle to ensure an easy grip. It is the ideal tool for both spreading and tempering of chocolate, and is also used to scrape chocolate for a clean finish while working with moulds. It is typically larger than a regular scraper, anywhere around 7” by 5”. PASTRY BAG - It is a cone-based cloth or plastic bag with an open end that can be fitted with metal or plastic tubes or tips (also called as nozzle) of various shapes and sizes. Used for shaping and decorat- ing with items such as icing; for filling certain kinds of pastries and other items, such as éclairs; and for portioning creams, fillings, and doughs. MIXING BOWL 14 | - The most useful mixing bowls are made of stainless steel and have round bottoms. They are used for general mixing and whipping. The round construction enables the whip to reach all areas, thorough mixing or whipping. PEEL - It is a thin, flat wooden board or steel sheet with a long handle, used for inserting and remov- ing hearth bread from deck ovens. Because they are thinner than traditional wooden peels, steel peels are easier to slideunder baked loaves. CUTTERS - Many types of cutters are used in a pastry kitchen. Cookie cutters and pastry cutters, avail- able in manyshapes, cut decorative shapes by stamping them from rolled-out cookie dough. - Roller cutters have a handle on each end, like a rolling pin, and are rolled over rolled-out dough cut repetitive shapes quickly and efficiently, with minimal loss of dough to trimmings and scraps. Roller cutters are often used for croissants. ICING COMB - It is a small plastic tool, usually rectangular, with serrated edges in various patterns, for decorating icings andother pastry and decorative items. BRUSHES - Pastry brushes are used to brush items with egg wash, glaze, and so on. Larger bench brushes are used to brush flour from tabletops and from the surface of dough. Oven brushes are used to clean excess flour fromdeck ovens. ROLLER DOCKER - It is a tool that pierces holes in a rolled-out dough to prevent blisters during baking. It consists of a handleattached to a rotating tube fitted with rows of spikes. TURNTABLE - It is a round, flat disk that swivels freely on a pedestal base. Used for holding cakes for deco- rating. WIRE RACK - It is a wire grate used to hold baked goods as they are cooling, or to hold items such as cakes while liquid icings, such as fondant, are applied or glazed. COUCHE - It is a sheet of heavy linen or canvas, used for supporting certain bread, such as baguettes, as they are proofed. The cloth is placed on a sheet pan and pleated to form troughs to hold the loaves so they can proof without spreading. CHOCOLATE / BONBON MOULDS - Used for all sorts of chocolate work, from large display pieces to bite-size truffles. SILICON MOULDS | 15 - Non-stick baking pan made of a flexible silicone material. Silicon moulds are available in dozens of shapes and sizes to make a wide range of products, from muffins and quick-bread loaves to petit fours. HOTEL PAN - A rectangular pan, usually made of stainless steel. Designed to hold foods in service counters. Also used for baking and steaming, and often baked items such as bread pudding. LOAF PAN & PULLMAN LOAF - A rectangular pan, usually with slightly flared sides, used for baking loaf bread. Loaf pans can be used for moulding refrigerated and frozen desserts. A special type of loaf pan is the Pull- man pan, which has straight, not flared sides, and a removable lid, for baking Pullman loaves of bread. BABA MOULD - A small thimble-shaped mould for making baba au rhum. BANNETON - A bentwood basket is available in various shapes, for holding and giving shape to certain hearth bread doughs as they proof. BARQUETTE - A small boat-shaped mould for petit fours and small tartlets BOMBE MOULD - A dome-shaped mould fro frozen desserts BRIOCHE MOULD - A flared pan with fluted sides for making brioche and tartlets. CAKE PANS - They come in many sizes and are generally used to bake sponges. TUBE PAN - A deep cake pan with a tube in the centre with sloping sides. The tube promotes even baking of delicate, foamed cakes and similar items. CHIFFON MOULD - A tall pan with a tube in the middle and with straight sides that are not sloped, and have little feet or metal fingers poking upwards from the top of the pan. - This is to facilitate the flipping of the cake tin upside down to cool down. This maintains the cell structure and the airiness of the cake. 16 | BUNDT PANS - Bundt pans were designed as a tube pan but with decorative cutouts for “Kugelhopf ” by the Nordic Ware company in 1950. They are still the leaders in Bundt pan manufacturing. - It became a staple in American households, most commonly used for butter cakes or pound cakes. CAKE RING - These are stainless-steel rings in various diameters and heights, most often used for baking moulded desserts and for shaping and holding desserts made of layers of cake, pastry, and fillings. The rings are removed after the fillings have set and before serving or display. MUFFIN PAN - Metal baking pan with cup-shaped indentations for baking muffins , they come in several sizes. MADELEINE PAN - A special baking pan with shell-shaped indentations, used for baking Madeleine. PETIT FOUR MOULDS - Tiny metal moulds in variety of shapes, used for baking an assortment of little tartlets, fi- nanciers, and, other petit fours. SAVARIN MOULD - Small ring-shaped or doughnut-shaped metal mould for baking savarins. SPRING FORM PAN - A cake pan with a removable bottom. Used primarily for baking cheesecakes and other items too delicate to be easily and cleanly removed from standard cake pans. TART MOULDS - Particular moulds used for baking tarts / pies. Standard moulds are round (rings), but square and rectangular tart shells are also available. They are available in various styles and sizes. - The basic distinction being that the mould may have a removable bottom or not. Other than this, the sides may be straight or fluted. - The dough is applied as a thin layer to these moulds and baked till dry and they release from the mould. - To aid in better circulation of heat and release of steam during baking, innovation has led to perforated rings in various shapes and sizes. This eliminates the use of pie weights, which are traditionally used to stop the pastry from puffing up during baking. | 17 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM - The measurement formats of weight, volume and count are used in both the U.S. and metric measurement systems. Both of these systems are used in modern bakeshops, so today’s pas- try chef and baker should be able to prepare formulas written in either one. - The U.S. system in actually the more difficult system to understand. It uses ounces and pounds for weight and cups for volume. - The Metric System is the most commonly used system in the world. Development in France during the late 18th century, it was intended to fill the need for a mathematically rational and uniform system of measurement. - The metric system is a decimal system in which the gram, litre and meter are the basic units of weight. Knowledge of the metric system is useful for bakers and pastry chefs interested in Eu- ropean formulas. - Luckily, most modern measuring equipment is calibrated in both U.S. and metric increments. CONVERTING RECIPES Weight Measure Conversion To calculate weight conversions into metric, multiply the number of ounces by 28.351 1 Oz = 28.351g 1oz. = 1 x 28.351 = 28.351g 32oz = 32 x 28.351 = 907.2g Volume Measure Conversion To calculate volume conversions into metric, multiply the number of ounces by 30 1 Oz = 30 Ml 1 fl oz = 1 x 30 = 30 ml 1/6 fl oz (1 tsp) = 1/6 x 30 = 5ml ½ fl oz (1 tbsp) = 1/2 x 30 = 15ml 16 fl oz (1 pint) = 16 x 30 = 480ml Length Measure Conversion To calculate length conversion into metric, multiply the number by 2.54 1 Inch = 2.54 Cm ½ in = 1/2 x 2.54 = 1.27 cm 1 in = 1 x 2.54 = 2.54 cm 2 in = 2 x 2.54 = 5.08 cm 18 | TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS - Temperature may be expressed in the Fahrenheit temperature scale, which is the standard system used in the United States, or in Celsius temperature scale, which is used in most of the rest world and by the scientific community. In the Fahrenheit scale, the freezing point of pure water is indicated at 32°F and the boiling point is reached at 212° F. Whereas in Celsius, the corresponding temperatures are 0ºC and 100ºC. - To convert Fahrenheit to Celsius, subtract 32 from the Fahrenheit to Celsius, then multiply number by 5 anddivide that result by 9. °C = (F-32) X 5/9 *NOTE: An easy trick is to remember that Fahrenheit numbers are high- er than the Celsius numbers. So the first step is to reduce the number by 32 (0ºC = 32ºF). Next thing to remember is that you’re converting the higher number to a lower one. Divide by 9 and then multiply by 5 (*higher then lower values*). Eg: 212ºF --- (212 – 32) x 5/9 = 180 x 5 / 9 = 20 x 5 = 100ºC To convert Celsius to Fahrenheit, reverse the above steps entirely. Di- vide by 5, multiply by 9 and then add 32. °F = (°C X 9/5)+32 Eg: 100ºC --- (100 x 9/5) + 32 = (20 x 9) + 32 = 180 + 32 = 212ºF Temperature Conversions Degrees in Farenheit Degrees in Celsius 32 0 212 100 350 177 375 191 400 204 425 218 | 19 2 FLOUR INGREDIENTS Flour is produced when grain kernels are milled or ground into fine powder. Corn, rice and wheat are the most significant one being used in bakeshops. WHEAT FLOUR - Wheat flour (French name - FARINE) is produced by milling wheat kernels (Triticum Aestivum). COMPOSITION OF WHEAT: - There are three parts to a wheat kernel - Bran - The bran or fiber part which is the hard, protective layer of the wheat kernel (14%). Germ - The germ which is rich in protein, fat and vitamins. Given that it contains fat, it is susceptible to rancidity(3%). Endosperm - The endosperm or protein / starchy part which makes up 80% of the volume and has mild flavour coupled with a smoother texture. - During milling, the endosperm is separated from bran and germ and is gradually grounded into flour. White flour is made from the endosperm only. Brown flour includes some of the kernel’s germ and bran, while whole wheat flour is made from the entire kernel, with all three parts. VARIETIES OF WHEAT Hard wheat: Flour made from hard wheat are high in gluten and are best for bread preparations as they make elastic dough and stands stress of mixing, kneading and fermentation. It also ab- sorbs good quantity of water. Soft Wheat: Flour made from soft wheat are low in gluten content, hence are best for cakes, bis- cuits and sponges. Soft wheat holds less water and cannot tolerate kneading and fermentation. 20 | COMPOSITION OF WHEAT FLOUR Fats & minerals: Generally accounts for less than 1% of flours content. Ash: Ash is mineral present in flour and contributes to flavour and colour of the flour. Higher the ash con- tent darker the flour. Minerals are found in higher concentration in the bran and outer part of the endo- sperm. Starches: It constitutes to 63-77 percent of flour and is necessary for the absorption of moisture during bak- ing. This process is called gelatinisation and occurs primarily above 60 degree Cel- sius. Gums: Primarily Pentosans, they are present in a small percentage in flour i.e. 2-3 percent. Protein: They account for 6-18 percent of flour. These proteins are of crucial importance be- cause of their gluten forming potential. Flour does not contain gluten only dough can have gluten. Protein responsible for gluten formations are Glutenin and Gliadin they represent about 80% of protein in flour. Enzymes: Amylase, protease and lipase are the remaining protein in flour. Enzymes break down the starches into sugar allowing the yeast to react with sugar and form gases that eventual- ly helps in rise of the bread. GLUTEN & ITS IMPORTANCE - It is a tough network of protein formed when the proteins Glutenin and Gliadin are moist- ened and hydrated. - Gluten development is affected by number of factors like mixing technique and presence of fat and moisture. - Mixing technique: longer dough is mixed, more gluten it develops although extreme over mixing may breakdown gluten network. - Fat: fats or shortenings coat the fine particle of flour and prevent the water from being ab- sorbed into theflour. This does not allow the gluten strands to form. - Moisture: moisture is required for flour to absorb and form gluten. Importance - Gluten strands are both plastic (they change the shape when under pressure) and elastic (they come backto their stage when the pressure is removed) - Gluten is responsible for the volume, texture and appearance of the baked goods. It pro- vides texture thathelps in retaining of gases given off by leavening agents. - To check the gluten network, chefs perform “windowpane” test. - With a small test quantity, the dough is stretched between both hands to get a thin, translu- cent membrane. If the dough stretches without tearing, that means the gluten is well-devel- oped and the dough is ready. The test dough is added back to the mass. If however, the dough tears or breaks while trying to stretch it, then this indicates that the dough is under- mixed or overmixed. | 21 TYPES OF FLOUR: - Cake flour: White flour low protein content, because of low protein content it is used in making cakes andnot for bread. Protein (6-8) percent. - High Ratio flour: Chlorinated or high ratio flour is a special cake flour that is able to hold large amounts of liquid. This gives the cake a very soft crumb and a light, moist and fine tex- ture. - Pastry flour: A low-protein flour that is designed to produce lighter, more tender pastries and bakedgoods than all-purpose flour. - All Purpose flour: it is a blend of hard flour and soft flour used for both bread and pastries. Protein (11-12) percent - Bread Flour: Milled from hard wheat, has a high protein content to produce goods that are with a chewycrumb and crisp crust. Protein content (12-14) percent. - High gluten flour: Used to increase the protein content of weaker flours like rye. Protein content (13.5-14.5) percent. - Durum flour: It is flour made from a type of hard wheat (triticum turgidum). It has high protein contentand is used to make pastas. Protein content (13-15) percent. SPECIALITY FLOURS: Whole Wheat Flour: Made by milling entire wheat kernel, including the bran and nutritious germ. It has a nutty aroma and brown colour because of bran present. Products made from wheat flour will be denser, heavier and will have less volume as compared to those made with white flour because of bran particle that cut through gluten strands in the dough resulting in heavier crumb. Whole wheat flour has reduced shelf life because fats in germ can be- come rancid during storage. Self Rising flour: All purpose flour to which salt and baking powder have been added. Chemicals lose their leavening ability over time and may cause inconsistent result so is usually not recommended for professionaluse. Rye flour: Commonly used in bread making. Milled from rye grain and is darker in colour as compared to other flours. Some chefs also refer rye flour as pumpernickel flour. Rye flour contains proteins, but they can’t form gluten so bread made with rye is dense and flat. So rye flour is usually blended with high protein flour to yield better result. Rye flour is high in Gum Pentosan. which absorbs more water so that dough made with rye flour is sticky and usually more hydrated. Gluten free flours: Rice Flour: Made from whole wheat or brown rice kernels that are finally grounded it has little protein and forms no gluten so is often used to make gluten free baked goods. Rice flour is also used to dust bread to give a nice crunch, example tiger bread. 22 | Buckwheat flour: It may contain the word “wheat” but it is not a wheat grain and is complete- ly free of gluten. It is a grain which provides a rich, earthy flavour and is good for baking quick bread. Sorghum flour: An ancient cereal grain that has been grown for more than 5000 years. The grain is naturally gluten-free and has a light texture and colour, as well as a mild flavour. It is considered a heavy or dense flour and is often used in combination with other gluten-free flours. Arrowroot flour: A gluten-free and grain-free powder. It is made from a strachy substance ex- tracted from a tropical plant called Maranta arundinacea. It is a versatile flour and can be used as a thickener or mixed withother gluten-free flours for bread and dessert recipes. Oat flour: Oat flour is made by grinding whole-grain oats. It gives baked goods more flavour than all-pur- pose flour and results in a chewier, crumblier texture. Baking with oat flour will make the end product moremoist and dense. Nut Flours: Finely ground hazelnut, pistachios and almonds are called nut flours. As they con- tain no protein forming gluten, these flours lends delicate taste and texture to cakes and cook- ies. Because of high fat content these flours can turn rancid soon. Coconut flour: It is made from dried coconut meat and offers a mild coconut flavour. Its light texture yields similar results to regular flour and is good for baking desserts. It absorbs a lot more water than regular or almond flour. It is highly recommeneded for those with nut and gluten allergies. European Standards for the grading of flour T-45, T-55, T-65, T-80, T-90 - The numbers indicate the ash content or percentage in the flour. - Ash is the mineral or inorganic material in flour. The ash content of any flour is affected pri- marily by the ash content of the wheat from the wheat it wasmilled, and its milling extraction rate: the amount of flour obtained from wheat after milling, when the bran and germ are re- moved, leaving the endosperm. - The test for determining the ash content involves: 1. Incinerating a known weight of flour under controlled conditions. 2. Weighing the inorganic residue. 3. Calculating the percentage of ash based upon the original sample weight. In 100g, 0.45% is ash (for T-45). This tells us the amount of inorganic residue is very less. Hence, T-45 is whiter than T-90 which would have an ash content of 0.90% and therefore, more inorganic residue. STORAGE OF FLOUR: 1) Flour should be stored in ventilated room at a temp of not more than 27 degrees. 2) Open bag of flour should be transferred to a closed container 3) Open bag of flour should be stored away from foods that have strong odour. | 23 SUGAR & SWEETENERS - Sugars (also called “Sucre” in French) are carbohydrates that are classified as either: 1. Single or simple sugars (monosaccharide) , such as glucose (plant based sugar) and fructose (fruit sugar)which occur naturally in honey or fruits. 2. Double or complex sugars (disaccharides) which are like lactose in milk or in refined sugar. - Sugar most often used in kitchen is sucrose, which is refined sugar obtained from sugar- cane. Sucrose is adisaccharide containing one molecule each of glucose and fructose. MANUFACTURING OF SUGAR - Common refined sugar or table sugar is produced from sugar cane or sugar beets. - The first step in sugar production is to crush the cane or beet sugar to extract the juice. This juice contains tannins, pigments, proteins, and other undesirable components that must be removed through refinement which is dissolving the juice in water and then boiling it in large steam injectors. 1. The solution is then crystallised in heated vacuum pans. 2. The uncrystallised liquid by product molasses is then separated out. 3. The remaining crystallised sugar is called raw sugar and still has many impurities. 4. Raw sugar is then washed with steam to remove impurities; this yields a product known as turbinado sugar. 5. Refining continues as turbinado is heated, centrifuged and filtered. 6. Chemicals are used to bleach and purify the liquid sugar. 7. Clear liquid sugar is crystallised in vacuum pans to get granulated white sugar. TYPES OF SUGAR: Fructose - Natural sugar present in fruits, honey and vegetables. Fructose is nearly twice as sweet as sucrose and attracts more water than sucrose so fructose sweetened products tends to be moist. Molasses - It is a thick brown syrup which is got as a by product of the sugar refining process. It consists of a significant amount of invert sugar, minerals and amino acids which are extracted during the refining process. Darker the colour, more intense the flavour. Brown Sugar - Made by fully refining sucrose and then restoring a measure amount of molasses to the re- fined sugar. The resulting sugar crystals will have a thin coating of molasses. Hence it has a soft moist texture.There are two types - light and dark brown sugar. Demerara/Turbinado sugar - Made by leaving some amount of molasses in during the refin- ing process rather than fully refining it and then adding some part of molasses back. Hence, the molasses is in the sugar crystal rather than just coating the sugar crystal. As a result, the crystals are not soft and moist, but hard and with a golden hue. Muscavado/Barbados Sugar - It is unrefined cane sugar and has a much higher content of molasses com-pared to brown sugar. The crystals are large in size and are sticky. 24 | Grain Sugar - Granulated sugar has almost all of the naturally present molasses refined out of it. The crystalsize is large and is more resistant to heat. Caster Sugar - Granulated sugar is also sometimes known as white sugar. Caster sugar has had all of the naturally present molasses refined out of it. The crystal sizes are much smaller than grain sugar. It is the sugarthat is most commonly used in baking as it dissolves very easily. Icing/Powdered/Confectioner’s Sugar - It is a finely ground sugar produced by milling granu- lated sugar into a powdered state. It usually contains a small amount of anti-caking agent like corn flour to prevent clumping. Snow Sugar - Snow sugar is made from dextrose rather than sucrose. It can be made from palm oil or other vegetable fats, wheat starch and titanium dioxide, which gives it a vibrant white colour. The Dextrose molecules are encapsulated and hence do not get dissolved when dusted over a moist product. It tastes less sweet than confectioner’s sugar because dextrose is about 25% less sweet than sugar. Pearl/Nib Sugar - It is a product of refined white sugar. The product usually is made by com- pressing sugar crystals to a very compacted state, then sifting to obtain desired size. The sugar is hard, opaque white. The highly compacted state does not allow it to dissolve easily in water or melt when baked Liquid Sweeteners Glucose - Glucose syrup is obtained by the hydrolysis of edible starch (polysaccharide) from either potatoes or wheat. It is formed by the hydrolysis of the long dextrose chains (breaking down) of the starch into shorter dextrose molecules using water, acid and enzymes. The process by which the mole- cules break down iscalled conversion. The qualities/properties of glucose: 1. It is sweeter than sugar 2. It is more hygroscopic in nature 3. Used to stop the re-crystallization of sugar. 4. Products may be more resistant to microbial spoilage. 5. Softer, smoother product texture (less sugar crystallization) Invert Sugar - Sucrose is a disaccharide, made up of two different individual sugar molecules attached together — glucose (dextrose) and fructose. Invert sugar is made by breaking the bonds between the glucose and fructose, resulting in a solution of half free glucose and half free fructose. Those bonds are broken through hydrolysis — a chemical reaction using water along with heat, enzymes, or acids. The longer the sugar is exposed to the acid, the more inverted the sugar gets. The qualities/properties of invert sugar: 1. It is sweeter than sugar 2. It is more hygroscopic in nature 3. Glucose and fructose are both reducing sugars which will contribute to Maillard browning. 4. Used to stop the re-crystallization of sugar. 5. Reduced viscosity compared of the product | 25 6. Products may be more resistant to microbial spoilage. 7. Softer, smoother product texture (less sugar crystallization) 8. It is a humectant Honey – Honeybees naturally produce honey by converting nectar to honey. The bees produce an enzyme called invertase, which allows them to naturally break down much of the sucrose into an inverted sugar inthe form of glucose and fructose. Corn Syrup - Corn Syrup is also an inverted sugar, but as the name states, is only made from corn and has had some of the glucose molecules converted to fructose. This glucose and fruc- tose liquid is runnier than liquid glucose. Corn syrup is easier to find in supermarkets, has a higher water content and is slightly sweeter than liquid glucose. It can be substituted for glu- cose but you need to adjust your recipe for the extra water content in corn syrup CHEMICAL SUGAR Isomalt - It is hydrogenated isomaltulose is a sugar substitute made from beets. Isomalt is manufactured in a two stage process in which sucrose is transformed into isomaltulose which is then hydrogenated. 1. Used in sugar work as it is less hygroscopic compared to sucrose 2. It retains heat for longer 3. It does not caramelize, remains clear 4. It does not crystallize as easily as sugar and can be melted and reused for a long time 5. Water is not required to dissolve it 6. Does not contain impurities. STAGES OF COOKED SUGAR Stage Temperature Ice Water Test Thread 113°C Spins a thread when dropped Soft ball 116°C Forms a soft ball Firm ball 119°C Forms a firm ball Hard ball 127°C Forms a hard compact ball Soft crack 132°C Separates into a hard thread Hard crack 149°C Seperates into a hard brittle sheet Caramel 175°C + Liquid turns brown 26 | CARAMEL - Sugar that is cooked to caramel stage cools down to a hard crack with golden hue and smoky flavour. Sugar starts reaching caramel stage after 160 degrees. Uses - Used to dip many pastries like Croquembouche to give an exterior crunch. - Can be used as garnish over custards, mousses and puddings. - Also used as filling in various pastries. When making caramel care must be taken as syrup will brown quickly if not re- moved from the heat. FATS Fats are part of natural organic compounds (lipids) that do not break down in the presence of water. Fat isthe general term we use for butter, lard, margarine and oil. Functions: Flavour and colour – Fat has the unique ability to absorb and preserve flavours. Oils are often infused with herbs and spices for preservation. Fats also contain compounds that lend specific flavours of their own. Add moisture and richness – Fats and oils have a texture all their own but are also responsible for tenderizing baked goods. This provides a very specific mouthfeel, creamy texture in the case of emulsions and flaky, melt- in-the-mouth textures in the case of cookies. Fats also retard the drying out a baked good while it is in the oven. Assist with leavening in cake batters – Creaming is a mixing method which consists of beat- ing fat with sugar. During this process, the sugar molecules cut the fat molecules and help to create air pockets which aids in higher aeration. This is a type of mechanical leavening. Shorten gluten strands – Shortening (not to be confused with margarine) is a term used to describe the ability of fat to make baked goods tender by impeding the formation of gluten strands. Normally, as bread dough is kneaded, the gluten begins to join and form long strands. When fat is added to the dough, it lubricates and thus interferes with the gluten network, ensur- ing a tender and flaky product. Following are the different types of fats used in bakery: Butter - Butter is a fatty substance produced by agitating or churning cream. Butter contains at least 80 percent milk fat 16 percent water 2- 4 percent milk solids. | 27 Butter starts to melt from 34 degrees and reaches smoke point at 127 degree Celsius. Clarified butter - Butter from which water and milk solids have been removed. Storage of butter - Butter should be stored at a temperature of 0-4 degree Celsius. Frozen but- ter (kept be-tween (0 to -18 degrees) can be stored for a longer period of time. Lard - is rendered pork fat. It is a solid white product of 100 % fat content and contains only a small amountof water. It is used in pastries to get flakier texture. Because of high fat content it is highly prone to rancidity. Margarine - It is a hydrogenated fat which is obtained from animal and vegetable source. Flavourings, colourings, emulsifiers and preservatives are added and the mixture is solidified by exposure to hydrogen gas at a very high temperature. Firmer the margarine, greater is the degree of hydrogenation and longer is the shelf life. Like butter margarine is 80 percent fat and 16 percent water. Margarine melts at higher temperature than butter, makes it useful for rolled in doughs such as puff pastry. Oils - It can be extracted from variety of plants including corn, grape seed, soybeans, peanuts, vegetable oil are virtually odourless and have neutral flavour. Because they have no animal products they are cholesterol free. Unlike butter and other fats, oil blends through the mixture thoroughly so it coats the proteins and pro- duces shorter gluten strands which produce fine textured products such as muffins and chiffon cakes. Shortenings - Any fat used in bakery can be called shortening because it shortens gluten strands and tenderises the product. Generally shortening is a white coloured fat formulated for baking. They are also made through a process of hydrogenation and have 100 percent fat. Solid shortening are ideal for greasing baking pans as they are odourless and flavourless. When substituting shortening with butter additional moisture must be added as shortening has less moisture content. Cocoa Butter - Chocolate in its rawest form contains approximately 53 percent fat, known as cocoa butter. Cocoa butter is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavour and aroma and its melting point is just below human body tempera- ture. Cocoa butter is obtained from whole cocoa beans. For use in chocolate manufacture, the beans are fermented before being dried. The beans are then roasted and separated from their hulls to produce cocoa nibs. About 54–58% of the cocoa nibs are cocoa butter. The co- coa nibs are ground to form cocoa mass, which is liquid at temperatures above the melting point of cocoa butter and is known as cocoa liquor or chocolate liquor. Chocolate liquor is pressed to separate the cocoa butter from the non-fat cocoa solids. Cocoa butter is sometimes deodorised to remove strong or undesirable tastes. 28 | EGG Eggs add colour, flavour, moisture, leaven, thicken and nutrients to baked goods. They enrich and tenderize bread. Along with water, protein is a key component of egg yolks and whites. Structure of an Egg: - The contents of an egg are held to a porous shell which allows an exchange of gases and loss of moisturefrom an egg. - Egg white is composed of a thin and a thick portion 25% is thin and the remaining 75 % is the thick por tion. - Surrounding the yolk is a very thin membrane called vitelline mem- brane. Extending from this is two chalazae that appears and anchor the yolk to the centre. Grading Eggs: - There are 7 grades of eggs and we use only 3 grades. The colour of the egg shell depends on the breed and the food they eat and the average weight is 40-60 gm; 15-18 grams-Yolks; 30-35 grams White. Sizing of Eggs: 1. Jumbo 2. Extra large 3. Medium 4. Small They are available in various forms: Fresh Still in the shell. Liquid Eggs that have recently been broken. Frozen Used commercially and stored in the freezers. Dried Contains minimum amount of moisture level. Others Classified into whole eggs, egg yolk and egg white. Functions / Properties of Egg: - Clarifying Agent - Egg whites can clarify or clear various fluid products. When the fluid is heated, added egg white coagulates, capturing and holding minute particles. Depending on the size and weight of the encased particles, the cooked whites may sink to the bottom, allow- ing the clarified mixture to be carefully poured off. Sometimes the whites may bubble to the top where they are skimmed off, resulting in a crystal-clear product. | 29 - Whipping Agent - Egg whites are often whipped into foam that is then incorporated into cakes, custards, soufflés, pancakes and other products. The air beaten into the egg foam gives products lightness and assists with leavening. Room temperature egg whites create the best foam volume and stability. - Coloring Agent - Protein browns when exposed to heat. Brushing pies, biscuits, bread and buns with an egg wash (beaten eggs alone or combined with water, milk or cream) before baking gives them a bronzed and glossy sheen. - Thickening Agent- Their ability to hold up to four times their weight in moisture makes eggs a good thickener for sauces, custards and curds. The proteins in eggs coagulate or set at dif- ferent temperatures. This results in thickening but it means that eggs must be cooked gently and heated carefully or they will scramble rather than thicken a sauce or other mixture. - Binding Agent - Eggs can act as binding agents. As their proteins set, eggs bind ingredients together giving strength and stability to baked goods. - Emulsifying agent - Hollandaise sauce and mayonnaise are good examples of an emulsion, the blending of two incompatible liq- uids such as oil and water. Since these two liquids don’t mix, an emulsifier is needed to hold the oil molecules in the water without the ingredients separating. The lecithin in egg yolks is an excellent emulsifier. Lecithin is the term given to a fatty substance which has the property of absorbing both water and fatty substances, which makes it the ideal candidate to bind them together to create a successful emulsion. Coagulation of an Egg - The proteins in the egg start to thicken, a process known as coagulation. There are more than 40 different proteins in a whole egg, some only located in the white and others predominantly in the yolk. - As the proteins unfold, they expose their hydrophobic (water-hating) and hydrophilic (water- loving) ends. The proteins form new bonds, arranging themselves so their water-hating ends are in the air and the water-loving ends are in the water. This creates a web of protein mole- cules that hold the air bubbles in place. - If the proteins are overheated or over beaten, the bonds will tighten and squeeze out the moisture, leaving the eggs dry, firm and rubbery. Egg white protein coagulates between 144° F and 149° F (62° C and 65° C); egg yolk protein coagulates between 149° F and 158° F (65° C and 70° C); and whole egg protein coagulates be- tween 144° F and 158° F (70° C and 71° C). Aged Egg Whites - Aging the egg whites dehydrates them; resulting in a firmer, more stable meringue. The rea- soning behind it is to dehydrate the egg whites as much as possible. This causes the egg whites to lose elasticity and helps you gets a stiffer meringue. - To age the egg whites: Place your egg whites in a plastic wrap-covered, nonporous bowl, and poke a few holes in the plastic with a toothpick. Leave the bowl in the refrigerator for up to three days. Be sure to bringthe egg whites back to room temperature before using. Storage 1. Eggs should be stored in a cool place between 1-7ºC 30 |  2. Eggs age more during one day at room temperature than during one week under proper refrigeration. 3. As eggs age the white becomes thinner and the yolk flatter (though it has a little effect on nutrition orbehaviour during cooking procedure but it does affect the way they whip). 4. The egg white must be kept in a tightly covered container. 5. Do not use dirty, cracked or broken eggs, as they may contain bacteria or other contamina- tion. 6. Store eggs away from strongly flavoured foods to reduce odour absorption. 7. Rotate eggs stock to maintain freshness. 8. Frozen egg should be thawed in the refrigerator and used only if the dishes that will be thor- oughly cooked,such as baked goods. COMPOSITIONS 1% 2% 12% 2% 2% 11% 30% 13% WHOLE YOLKS ALBUMIN EGGS 52% 73% 16% 86% FAT PROTEIN WATER MINERALS | 31 SALT - Salt is the most basic seasoning, used to enhance the flavour and sweetness of the other in- gredient in the food. The salt flavour can be tasted not smelled. - It suppresses the bitter flavour, making the sweet and sour ones more prominent. When used in chocolate and caramel, salt heightens contrasting taste of bitter and sweet. - Because it is nonorganic it can be kept indefinitely. It will, however, absorb moisture from the atmosphere, which prevents it from flowing properly. - Salt is a powerful preservative; its presence slows down the growth of many undesirable organisms. - In yeast dough, salt slows down the yeast fermentation and enzyme activity. Salt also strengthen the gluten structure in bread dough making it more cohesive and less sticky. - Omitting or reducing the amount of salt can cause the dough to raise too quickly, adversely affecting the shape and flavour of bread. - With salt present, gluten holds more water and carbon dioxide, allowing the dough to ex- pand without tearing, gives better volume and finer crumb. - In baking we use finely ground salt, asit dissolves readily in all mixtures TYPES OF SALT Rock salt, mined from underground deposits, is available in both edible and non-edible forms. Used in icecream churns. Sea salt is obtained by evaporating sea water. Unlike other table salts contain additional min- eral salts that give it a stronger, more complex flavour and greyish brown colour. Fleur de Sel and Sel Gris are two distinctive types of refined sea salt. Fleur de sel is a salt that forms as a thin, delicate crust on the surface of seawater as it evapo- rates. It is now used as a finishing salt to flavour and garnish food. The name comes from the flower-like patterns of crystalsin the salt crust. Black salt is a kiln-fired rock salt used in South Asia with a sulphurous, pungent-smell. It is also known as “Himalayan black salt”. The condiment is composed largely of sodium chloride with several other components lending the salt its colour and smell. The smell is mainly due to its sul- phur content. Maldon Salt is English sea-salt. It comes in large, thin, uneven, crunchy salt flakes that have a very clean, pure salt taste. Maldon Salt is made in Essex County, England, in the town of Maldon. Kosher salt has large, irregular crystals. It is purified rock salt that contains no iodine or addi- tives. 32 | DAIRY 9% MILK - Milk contains water about 88 % , 3.5% 4% milk fat and 8.5% other milk solids(pro- teins, lactose and minerals). - Milk provides texture, flavour, volume, MILK colour and nutritional value to the cooked or baked items. - It also contributes to browning as well as 88% softness in the crust and structure of baked Water Milk Fat Milk Solids items. PASTEURISATION - Pasteurisation is the process of heating milk to a high temperature (72 degree Celsius) and holding milk there for 15 seconds. It is done to destroy pathogenic bacteria. - Pasteurisation also destroys enzymes thatcause spoilage, thus increasing shelf life. Nutritional value is not significantly affected by pasteurisation. ULTRA HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSING (UHT) - UHT is the process in which milk is held at 138-149 degree Celsius for 2-6 seconds. it is then packed in sterile containers under sterile conditions and sealed to prevent bacteria from en- tering the container. - Un- opened UHT milk can be stored without refrigeration for at least 3 months. UHT process gives the milk aslightly cooked taste, but it has no significant effect on milk’s nutritional value. HOMOGENISATION - It is a process in which fat globules in whole milk are reduced in size and permanently dis- persed throughout the liquid. This prevents the fat from clumping together and rising to the surface as a layer or a cream. Milk which is sold commercially ensures a uniform consistency, a whiter colour and a richer taste. Storage of Milk - Fluid milk is potentially hazardous food and should be kept refrigerated at or below 4 degree Celsius. Its shelf life is reduced to half for every five degree rise in temperature above 4 de- grees. Keep milk containers close to prevent absorption of odours or flavours. Concentrated Milks - Concentrated milk products are produced by using a vacuum to remove all or part of the wa- ter from whole milk. The resulting products have a high concentration of milk fat and milk solids and an extended shelf life. | 33 Condensed Milk: - Milk in which 60 percent of the water has been removed & contains 40-45 percent of sugar. Sweetened condensed milk is canned and the canning process darkens the colour and adds a caramel flavour. Sweetened condensed milk cannot be substituted for whole milk because of its sugar content. Dry Milk Powder - It is made by removing virtually all moisture from pasteurised milk. the lack of moisture prevents the growth of microorganism and allows dry milk powder to be stored for extended periods of time without refrigera- tion. Powdered milk can be reconstituted with water and used like fresh milk. milk powder can be added into foods directly with additional liquid in- cluded in the recipe example bread. Soy Milk - Soy milk is made with either soybeans or soy protein isolate, and often contains thickeners and vegetable oils to improve taste and consistency. It typically has a mild and creamy flavour. Almond Milk - Almond milk is made with either whole almonds or almond butter and water. It has a light tex- ture and a slightly sweet and nutty flavour. It is a natural source of vitamin E, a group of antiox- idants that help protect the body from disease-causing substances known as free radicals. Coconut Milk - Coconut milk is made from water and the white flesh of brown coconuts. Coconut milk has a creamy texture and a sweet but subtle coconut flavour. Coconut milk has the lowest protein and carbohydrate content of thenon dairy milks. Skimmed Milk - Skimmed milk or skim milk is made when all the milk fat is removed from whole milk. It tends to contain around 0.1% fat. Cream - Cream is a rich liquid product containing at least 18 percent fat. It must be pasteurised or ultra pasteurised and may be homogenised. Cream is more viscous than milk and is used to give flavour and body to desserts. Half and Half - is a mixture of whole milk and cream containing between 10- 18 percent of fat. It is often served with cereal or coffee but does not have enough fat to be whipped into foam. Table Cream - Are all products with 18 percent but less than 30 percent milk fat. These products are often used in baked goods. Light Whipping Cream - Or simple whipping cream contains 30-36 percent milk fat. It whips easily and holds its whipped texture longer than other creams. 34 |  Heavy Cream - contains not less than 36 percent milk fat. It whips easily and holds its whipped texture forlong than other creams. Clotted cream - It is a thick spreadable cream with 55 % milk fat made from unpasteurised whole milk. This milk is heated and then cream clumps and floats to the top when the milk cools and dense clotted cream is removed. Served usually with scones. Also referred to as Devon or Devonshire cream. Cultured Dairy Products They are produced by adding bacterial cultures to fluid dairy products. Bacteria convert the milk sugar lactose into lactic acid , which causes the proteins to coagulate, giving these products their body, tangy and unique flavours. Examples are: Butter Milk - Butter milk is produced by adding lactic acid bacteria to fresh , pasteurised skim or low fat milk. Curd - The generic term “Curd” refers to the milk solids that are left after curdling milk (by way of adding an acidic curdling agent).This gives “curd” which is further processed to make cheese. The other curd referred to here, is obtained by way of fermentation – by adding a bacterial cul- ture to boiled and cooled milk. This is called Dahi in India. Sour Cream - Produced by adding lactic acid bacteria to pasteurised homogenised light cream. The result is a white tangy product with a milk fat content of not less than 18 %. Creme Fraiche - Made by adding butter milk to heavy cream, it has a similar tart and tangy flavour like sour cream although it’s thinner and richer than sour cream. Yogurt - It is a thick tart product made from milk cultured with lactobacillus bulgaricus. it con- tains same amount of milk fat as milk and is used in baked products and frozen desserts. Storage Cream & cultured products are potentially hazardous and should be kept at 4 de- gree celsius. | 35 CHEESE ‘Fromage’ in French One of the oldest and widely used food known to humans. Cheese is produced when milk protein (casein) is coagulated with the addition of enzyme called rennet which is found in calves stomach. As the milk coagulates it separates into solid curds and liquid whey. - Fresh cheese has a moisture content of 40 - 80 percent and are highly perishable. Storage Most cheese are kept refrigerated and well wrapped to keep the odours out and moisture in. Firm and hardcheese can be kept for several weeks : fresh cheese will spoil in 7-10 days because of their high moisture content. Mascarpone Cheese - Made from pasteurised cow’s milk - Type: fresh soft, processed - Fat content: 70-75% - Texture: buttery, creamy, smooth and spreadable - Colour: white - Flavour: buttery, creamy, mild, milky Cream Cheese - Made from pasteurised or unpasteurised cow’s milk - Type: fresh soft, processed - Fat content: 35% - Texture: creamy and spreadable - Colour: white - Flavour: creamy, mild, sweet Ricotta - Made from whey leftover from production of other cheeses (can be goat, sheep, cow or buffalo) - Type: hard, whey - Texture: firm - Colour: white - Flavour: salty Goats Cheese - Made from pasteurized or unpasteurized goat’s milk - Type: soft - Fat content: 46% - Texture: creamy, crumbly - Colour: white 36 | - Flavour: malt, salty, tangy - Aroma: nutty, strong Feta Cheese - Made from pasteurized or unpasteurized goat’s & sheep’s milk - Type: soft - Fat content: 16% - Texture: creamy, crumbly, grainy and open - Colour: white - Flavour: full-flavoured, salty, tangy - Aroma: nutty, strong Mozzarella - Made from pasteurized or unpasteurized cow’s or water buffalo’s milk - Type: semi-soft, brined - Fat content: 45% - Calcium content: 403 mg/100g - Texture: springy, stringy & supple - Colour: white - Flavour: milky - Aroma: fresh, milky Quark - Cross between yoghurt and cottage cheese - Made from soured milk which is curdled and fermented. - Made from pasteurized cow’s milk - Type: fresh soft, artisan - Texture: creamy and smooth - Colour: white - Flavour: mild, milky - Aroma: milky, sweet | 37 NUTS Nuts provide texture and flavour in baking goods and are often substituted for all or part of the wheat flour in a pastry (such as dacquoise). A nut is the edible single seed kernel of a fruit sur- rounded by a hard shell. Nuts are often roasted in a low (275°F/135°C) oven or in a sauté pan over low heat before being used in order to heighten their flavour. Almonds are the seeds of a plum like fruit, native to western India and available sliced, sliv- ered, whole, ground. Almonds are frequently used in pastries and candies and are the main in- gredient in almond pasteand marzipan. Brazil nuts sometimes referred to as cream nuts, are the large, oval shaped seeds of huge trees that grow wild in the rain forests of Central and South America. Their high oil content gives them a rich, buttery flavour and tender texture. Cashew, native to the Amazon, is actually the seeds of a plant of a drupe fruit that is attached to the cashew apple, the fruit of the cashew tree. The nut must be roasted to remove the caustic shell oil before being consumed. Hazelnuts are used in confections to make pralines, chocolate truffles, and hazelnut paste prod- ucts. Hazel- nuts are used in confectionery to make praline, and also used in combination with chocolate for chocolate truffles. Hazelnut oil, pressed from hazelnuts, is strongly flavoured and used as cooking oil. Turkey is the world’s largest producer of hazelnuts. Hazelnuts will keep for about a year in your refrigerator if stored in anairtight container or freeze some for later use. Macadamia nut, are small, round, creamy white nuts with a sweet, rich flavour and high fat content, native toAustralia. Its flavour blends well with fruits & chocolate. Peanuts, also known as groundnuts, are actually legumes that grow underground is Native to South America. In the food industry peanuts are used in various other forms like Peanut oil, peanut butter, peanut flour,boiled peanuts, dry roasted peanuts. Pistachio nuts, native to western Asia, naturally have a creamy coloured shells; the nutmeat is green, with a distinctive sweet flavour. Pistachios are sold whole in the shell, raw, roasted (usual- ly salted). Walnuts are mild, tender, oily nuts. They grow in two segments inside a hard shell. They are sold in theshell/ halved, pressed for oil Pecans are the most popular nuts in the America. They have a rich flavour. The shell is medi- um brown,smooth, and glossy. NUT FLOURS Nut flours, Also known as nut meals, nut flours are generally made from raw (sometimes blanched) or dried, whole nuts that have been ground into a fine powdery meal. 38 | Almond flour - Blanched or slivered almonds will produce lighter-coloured flour, which can be used in almostany baking recipe, while whole almonds produce browner flour that will add a darker hue to baked goods. Pecan flour - Because pecan meal’s skin is left on prior to grinding, thus contributing to its darker brown colour. Pecan flour is quite similar to almond flour and very rich tasting, though it has a slightly more astringent flavour. Hazelnut flour - Like pecans, hazelnut meal is darker, which will affect a baked product’s colour. Hazelnut has a more distinct flavour. Walnut flour - Walnut flour, which has a distinctly walnut taste, is brown flour since its skin is left on when grinding. It works best in recipes similar to those that call for pecan flour. Storage Nuts are high in fat, making them especially susceptible to rancidity and odour absorption. Nuts should be stored in a non-metal airtight container, in a cool, dark place. Most nuts may be kept frozen up to one year.Nut flours should be stored in the refrigerator or freezer to avoid rancidity. Almond, pecan, hazelnut, and walnut flours are the most widely available varieties. | 39 SPICES Allspice also known as Jamaican pepper or Pimenta is the dried fruit of the Pimenta dioica plant. The fruits are picked when green and unripe and are traditionally dried in the sun. When dry they are brown and resemble large, smooth peppercorns. Ground allspice is not a mixture of spices although it does taste like a blend of cinnamon, cloves and nutmeg. Allspice gives a distinctive taste to spiced cookies and gingerbread. Anise is native to the eastern Mediterranean. It is grown commercially in warm climates throughout India, North Africa and southern Europe. The tiny, gray- green egg shaped seeds, have distinctively strong, sweet flavour, similar to fennel. Anise is used in beverages and pas- tries. When anise seeds turn brown they are staleand should be discarded. Caraway grows wild in Europe and temperature region of Asia. Caraway is used extensively in the rye bread of Germany and Austria. It is also said to have preservative qualities extending the shelf life of bread made with it. Cardamom is highly aromatic. Its flavour, lemony with notes of camphor, is quite strong and is used in both sweet and savory dishes. Widely used in India & Middle East. Cardamom is widely used in pastries or to flavour bread. Ground cardamom loses its flavour rapidly. Cinnamon & Cassia are among the oldest known spices. They come from the bark of small evergreen trees,peeled from branches in thin layers and dries in the sun. High quality cinnamon should be pale brown and thin, rolled up like paper into sticks known as quills. Cassia is coars- er and has a stronger, less subtle flavour than cinnamon. Consequently it’s cheaper than cinna- mon. Cinnamon’s flavour is most often associated with pastries and sweets. Cloves are extremely pungent, with a sweet astringent aroma. A small amount provide great flavour. Clovesare usually blended with other spices for cakes and cookies. Coriander seeds come from the cilantro plant. They are round and beige, with a distinctively sweet, spicy flavour and strong aroma. Ginger is a well-known spice obtained from the root of a tall, flowering tropical plant. Its flavour is fiery but sweet. Ginger powder is widely used in pastries. Ground gingers flavour is more Spicer than fresh ginger. Nutmeg comes from the yellow plum like fruit of a large tropical evergreen. These fruits are dried and opened to reveal the seed. The flavour and aroma of a nutmeg are strong and sweet, and a small quantity pro-vides a great deal of flavour used in royal custard. Mace is the outer covering of nutmeg with similar flavour profile. It is can be purchased ground or whole andit retains its flavour longer than other ground spices. Peppercorns are the berries of a vine plant native to tropical Asia. Black and white pepper- corns are produced from the same plant, but are picked and processed differently. For black peppercorns, the berries are picked when green and sun-dried. For white peppercorn, the 40 | berries are ripened until they turn red. They are then fermented, and the outer layer of skin is washed off. Poppy seeds are the ripened seed of the opium poppy, which flourishes in the Middle East and India. The tiny blue-grey seeds are round and hard with a sweet, nutty flavour. Poppy seeds are used in pastry and bread often combined with honey and citrus rind. Sesame seeds, have a nutty and earthy taste, Sesame seeds are the source of sesame oil, which has an intense, smoky flavour and does not go rancid easily. Sesame seeds are often toasted and used in confections and cook-ies and as a garnish for the bread. Saffron is a spice derived from the flower saffron crocus. The crimson stigmata and styles, called threads, are collected and dried to be used mainly as a seasoning and coloring agent in food. Saffron should be kept in a dry, dark place for three years or even longer. It should not be stored in the refrigerator and does not takewell to freezing. Vanilla, Regarded as the world’s most popular aroma and flavour, vanilla is a widely used aroma and flavour compound for foods, beverages and as an ice cream flavour. There are 3 different species of vanilla. 1. Planifolia - 97% of market 2. Tahitensis - 2% of market 3. Pompona - 60°C. Gelatine should not be added to a liquid at temp > 85°C. Excessive heat can destroy the gelling properties of gelatin. - Uses include gelling, binding of water, formation of texture, thickening agent, formation of emulsion, formation of foam, formation of a film. - Gelatin is available in the following forms: 1. Sheets Gelatin that is dried in a flat sheet. Sheets result in a clearer, more transparent final prod- uct than powder. 2. Powder Gelatin which has been dried and broken up into individual grains, which has the advan- tage is dispersingmore easily throughout a dish. Products negatively affecting the gelling ability of gelatin: certain tropical fruits, like pineapple and papaya which contain enzymes that destroy gela- tine strong acids strong alcohol concentration Strength - The term “bloom” is used in two different contexts. - One refers to the softening o f gelatin in liquid prior to melting it. 50 | - The other use of “bloom” refers to the firmness of the gelatin, known as Bloom Strength. - A higher number indicates a stiffer product. Gelatin used in food usually runs from 125 to 250 bloom. There are several grades of gelatin based on bloomstrength. TYPE BLOOM STRENGTH GRAMS PER SHEET Bronze 125-155 3.3 Silver 160 2.5 Gold 190-220 2 Platinum 235-265 1.7 - Gelatine quantities in recipes can be converted from one type to another based on need and availability. The following formula is used to calculate the conversion: Mass (Gelatin A) X Bloom (Gelatin A) = Mass (Gelatin B) X Bloom (Gelatin B) For example, the recipe calls for 10g of silver gelatin, however you have gold gelatin in your pantry. We need to calculate the quantity of gold gelatin required. We know the bloom strengths of both these gelatin. Mass(Gold) X Bloom (Gold) = Mass (Silver) X Bloom (Silver) Mass (Gold) = Mass (Silver) X Bloom of Silver / Bloom of Gold Mass (Gold) = Mass (Silver) X 160/200 Mass (Gold Gelatin) = Mass (Silver Gelatin) X 0.8 (Multiplier) - From this we can understand that to calculate the equivalent amount of gold gelatin for silver gelatin, we must multiply the silver gelatin by 0.8. - For the given example of 10 g of silver gelatin, Mass (Gold Gelatin) = 10 X 0.8 = 8 G Similarly, we can arrive at the respective multiplier factors for all the bloom strengths. CONVERSION PLATINUM GOLD SILVER BRONZE (FROM- TO) Platinum - 1.2 1.5 2 Gold 0.83 - 1.25 1.6 Silver 0.65 0.8 - 1.3 Bronze 0.5 0.6 0.75 - | 51 PECTIN - Pectin is an isolated starch called a hetero polysaccharide, that occurs naturally in the cell walls of fruits and vegetables. It is, in fact, the very thing that gives them structure. When cooked to a high temperature. - In combination with acid and sugar, it forms a gel. Pectin, in fact, is what makes jams and jellies develop a semi-solid texture when they cool. Pectin can be used in other dishes that re- quire food to gel or thicken. - Unlike gelatin, which is made from animal parts, pectin comes from fruit. As a result, any food with pectin listed as an ingredient is both vegetarian and vegan. Pectic substances consist of an associated group of poly- saccharides that are extractable with hot water or with aque- ous solutions of dilute acids. - Some fruits, like apples and quince, are naturally very high in pectin; this is why they are very firm. The rinds, seeds, and membranes of citrus fruit are also very high in pectin—up to 30% by weight. This is why marmalades are made from citrus; in fact, the word “mar- malade” comes from the Portuguese marmelada, for quince paste, derived from marmelo, for quince. Commercial pectins are usually made from citrus rinds. Some pectins are treat- ed during manufacture with ammonia to produce amidated pectins, which have particular ad- vantages in some applications. - There are several different types of pectin, and each behaves differently. HM PECTIN - The default method of production yields a High Methoxyl Pectin, which mostly comes from fruits - Disperses well in water. - To gel, HM pectin needs - high amount of sugar (60% or higher by weight) and - an acid (overall ph