IB Problem Solving Skills in an International Context Syllabus 2024 PDF

Syllabus Course: Problem Solving Skills for International Business Students October 2024 drs Gerni Luttikhuis MWO lecturer, trainer, coach Faculty of Economics & Business University of Groningen the Netherlands 1 Table of contents I. Problem Solving Skills: scope and course outline........................................................................... 3 1a What is Problem Solving and Why is it Important?................................................................ 3 1b Problem Solving Skills: course outline................................................................................... 4 II. Problem Solving Skills: overview aspects of PSS & texts for reading and studying....................... 7 a. Aspects of PSS for CTU course:................................................................................................ 7 b. Intercultural interaction: case................................................................................................. 7 1. Fast and Slow thinking (summary).................................................................................................. 8 2. Four stages of learning.................................................................................................................. 10 3. Theory of communication............................................................................................................. 11 3a Communication wall............................................................................................................ 11 3b Levels of communication..................................................................................................... 11 4. Reflective skills.............................................................................................................................. 13 5. Goal setting: identifying scope...................................................................................................... 14 6. Theory of Flip-Thinking: the skill of changing perspectives........................................................... 15 7. Intercultural case........................................................................................................................... 16 8. Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity (article)...................................................... 17 9. Cultural values: what is fundamentally important for a person.................................................... 22 a. What are “values”?............................................................................................................... 22 b. Netherlands/Dutch Values Lens........................................................................................... 23 c. Vietnam values lens.............................................................................................................. 25 10. Communication Styles................................................................................................................... 27 11. Article: Innovation Leadership Lessons from the Marshmallow Challenge.................................. 34 12. Effective team work: team Charter............................................................................................... 36 13. Regulating skills............................................................................................................................. 38 14. Active Listening (article): Hear What People are Really Saying..................................................... 40 15. Article: The 12 Blocks to Active Listening...................................................................................... 42 16. Active listening (question types)................................................................................................... 46 17. Article: Feedback through cultural looking glass........................................................................... 48 18. Tip: The use of AI for problem Solving …………………………………………………………………………………….. 51 2 I. Problem Solving Skills: scope and course outline “We do not think as long as things run smoothly for us. It is only when the routine is disrupted by the intrusion of a difficulty, obstacle or challenge that we are forced to stop drifting and to think what we are going to do”. John Dewey, qtd in Adair, J. (Decision Making and Problem Solving Strategies, 2010) 1a What is Problem Solving and Why is it Important? The ability to solve problems is a basic life skill and is essential to our day-to-day lives, at home, at school, and at work. We solve problems every day without really thinking about how we solve them. For example: it’s raining and you need to go to the store. What do you do? There are lots of possible solutions. Take your umbrella and walk. If you don't want to get wet, you can drive, or take the bus. You might decide to call a friend for a ride, or you might decide to go to the store another day. There is no right way to solve this problem and different people will solve it differently. Problem solving is the process of identifying a problem, developing possible solution paths, and taking the appropriate course of action. Why is problem solving important? Good problem solving skills empower you not only in your personal life but are critical in your professional life. In the current fast-changing global economy, employers often identify everyday problem solving as crucial to the success of their organizations. For employees, problem solving can be used to develop practical and creative solutions, and to show independence and initiative to employers. What Does Problem Solving Look Like? The ability to solve problems is a skill, and just like any other skill, the more you practice, the better you get. So how exactly do you practice problem solving? Learning about different problem solving strategies and when to use them will give you a good start. Problem solving is a process that uses steps to solve problems. But what does that really mean? Let's break it down and start building our toolbox of problem solving strategies. 1. What is the first step of solving any problem? The first step is to recognize that there is a problem and identify the right cause of the problem. This may sound obvious, but similar problems can arise from different events, and the real issue may not always be apparent. To really solve the problem, it's important to find out what started it all. This is called identifying the root cause. Example: You and your classmates have been working long hours on a project in the school's workshop. The next afternoon, you try to use your student ID card to access the workshop, but discover that your magnetic strip has been demagnetized. Since the card was a couple of years old, you think it must be due to wear and tear and get a new ID card. Later that same week you learn that several of your classmates had the same problem! After a little investigation, you discover that a strong magnet was stored underneath a workbench in the workshop. The magnet was the root cause of the demagnetized student ID cards. 3 The best way to identify the root cause of the problem is to ask questions and gather information. If you have a vague problem, investigating facts is more productive than guessing a solution. Ask yourself questions about the problem. What do you know about the problem? What do you not know? When was the last time it worked correctly? What has changed since then? Can you diagram the process into separate steps? Where in the process is the problem occurring? Be curious, ask questions, gather facts, and make logical deductions rather than assumptions. “The ability to ask the right question is more than half the battle of finding the answer.” — Thomas J. Watson, founder of IBM 2. Communication In any workplace, communication of problems and issues (especially those that involve safety) is always important. When issues and problems arise, it is important that they be addressed in an efficient and timely manner. Effective communication is an important tool because it can prevent problems from recurring, avoid injury to personnel, reduce rework and scrap, and ultimately, reduce cost and save money. One strategy for improving communication is the huddle. Just like football players on the field, a huddle is a short meeting with everyone standing in a circle. A daily team huddle is a great way to ensure that team members are aware of changes to the schedule, any problems or safety issues are identified and that team members are aware of how their work impacts one another. When done right, huddles create collaboration, communication, and accountability to results. Impromptu huddles can be used to gather information on a specific issue and get each team member's input. https://ccmit.mit.edu/problem-solving 1b Problem Solving Skills: course outline LEARNING OBJECTIVES Upon completion of the course you will: 1. understand the complexity of problem solving skills in an international context 2. know the following theories concerning problem solving skills: learning process, slow and fast thinking, communication, intercultural communication, perspective changing 3. have reflected on your current level of (aspects of) problem solving skills 4. have developed (aspects of) problem solving skills by practicing subskills 5. have explored and learned how to develop (aspects of) problem solving skills in a team and how to benefit from the diversity of quality among team members in a student team. COURSE DESCRIPTION We solve problems every day in a variety of situations: traffic jam, gaming, money shortage, shopping for food, favourite shirt dirty, missing the bus etc. So these are in essence not new skills; we already have life-long experience solving problems (for example by finding a solution, by avoiding them, by delegating them to others, by waiting for time to pass and the problem to go away ). 4 Taking your skills as you have developed them so far to a next level, we will focus on interactional and creative skills rather than on business expertise. So we will NOT address business models such as SWOT, Pestel or Porter. Rather we will zoom in on aspects of the quality of solutions, the way to get there when you work with others and an understanding of how the skills we have developed over time, our interpersonal skills, the way our brain works and our self-image affect the process and the outcome. What does it take to collaborate in a team when having to solve a problem in an international or intercultural business context? These aspects can be categorized into knowledge, skills and attitude required for effective problem solving. DIDACTIC SET-UP Even though the student population is all Vietnamese, we work in an international context and with a view to moving comfortably in an international setting after graduation. The way we work together will be interactive (that is: in small groups you will explore and discuss issues and cases), small groups (to be able to actively practice skills), learning from experience (so you will be asked to open up to experimenting), reflect on those experiences and studying texts on separate skills (theories). During the lectures, we will be active: watch videos, do exercises, reflect on what we experienced, and try things out. In that sense the course is set up as a training seminar within the conventional lectures. You are invited to adopt an open attitude to learning. The class is a error-free zone: every experience counts for building skills so try, try and try again. To find out how something does not work, is also a positive experience. As Albert Einstein said: “I have failed a 100 times, so I have learned a 100 ways that are not the right ones” As we will address subskills, individually you may have developed some to a high level already. In that case I am asking you to reflect on the effective behaviour you are already showing and the way you may help others develop this, too. ASSESSMENT Your knowledge and understanding of problem solving skills will be tested by means of multiple choice questions. The exam covers the lectures (the lecture slides will be made available) and the texts in the syllabus. COURSE SCHEDULE Monday 13, Wednesday 15 and Friday 17 August: 7.30 am – 11.30 am Day 1 ▪ Introduction scope course PSS: definition, creativity and interaction ▪ Theoretical framework: Fast and Slow Thinking, Theory of Learning, Communication Levels, Reflective skills ▪ Relevant Texts in syllabus: to be announced Preparation for day 2: revise lecture notes and study relevant texts in syllabus: to be announced Day 2 ▪ Flip thinking: perspective change for more creativity ▪ PSS in intercultural setting: communication styles & cultural values 5 ▪ Preparation for day 3: revise lecture notes and study relevant texts in syllabus: to be announced Day 3 ▪ Teamwork: team start for higher quality and effective strategy ▪ Listening: summarizing, probing, observing ▪ Creative team processes READING LIST - Course syllabus (provided by the lecturer) - Optional: Adair, J. Decision Making and problem Solving Strategies. KoganPage 2010 6 II. Problem Solving Skills: overview aspects of PSS & texts for reading and studying a. Aspects of PSS for CTU course: b. Intercultural interaction: case Discuss and take notes of the various suggestions for exploration on day 2: a. What could explain Alena’s behaviour towards Gert? b. What could explain Gert’s behaviour Alena? 7 1. Fast and Slow thinking (summary) Overview This could read as the start of an 'unauthorised instruction book of your brain' that you didn't know you needed, but won't be able to live without. It's a foundational model in behavioural economics that will help inform your understanding of cognitive biases, behaviour change and humanity in general. Nobel Prize winner Daniel Kahneman’s mental model of Fast and Slow Thinking underpins behavioural economics by explaining how you live most of your life on automatic pilot, are essentially irrational, and prone to cognitive biases. TWO THINKING SYSTEMS. Kahneman’s findings are captured in his 2011 bestselling book Thinking Fast and Slow where he describes two distinct thinking systems: Fast thinking (system 1): which is automatic, intuitive, error-prone and used for most common decisions. This is by far the majority of how we think each day. Slow thinking (system 2): which is effortful, reasoned, more reliable and used for complex decisions. Fast thinking is a primal survival mechanism that uses heuristics, or cognitive shortcuts, to quickly respond to threats. It’s fast but those shortcuts are ultimately unreliable. In contrast, slow thinking requires considerable attention and delivers a more accurate understanding. AUTOMATIC PILOT. Kahneman’s work confirms that your brain instinctively prioritises conserving energy and overly relies on fast thinking as a result. The point — you'll be on autopilot for most of your life, which opens up all sorts of implications... IN YOUR LATTICEWORK. Fast and slow thinking is one of the most significant mental models listed on ModelThinkners because it underpins so much of our modern understanding of behavioural science, behavioural economics, psychology, marketing and humanity. Firstly, it helps to explain our heuristics, or biases, such as Confirmation, Anchoring, Availability, Endowment, Peak-End Heuristics, as well as Correlation vs Causation and many more. In addition, the fact that you are on autopilot for most of the time and most of your life makes the use of Nudges via the EAST Framework and building Habit Loops as powerful options for change. Actionable takeaways ‘Econs’ and other rational models of humanity are as flawed as we are. Econs was coined by economist Richard Thaler to describe the rationale, logical people who are the basis for traditional economic models. Thaler argues that Kahneman’s work instead poses ‘humans’ who are often illogical, act on intuition over logic and act irrationally. This is a simple distinction that contrasts traditional economics vs behavioural economics, but it is one that can be used to challenge assumptions in other areas also. 8 You aren’t just irrational, you are rationalising. Even when you switch to slow thinking you will have a tendency to justify and rationalise your fast thinking, impulsive decisions. Fast thinking can be advantageous via expertise and consistent environmental factors. Experts build up stronger and more reliable heuristics for specific situations — that’s mastery. As a result, experts' fast thinking within their domain will be more reliable. That said, they too will suffer from slight environmental changes that their fast thinking will likely not identify or read accurately. Cognitive biases are unavoidable. The process of being in automatic pilot, of fast thinking, for much of your life, leaves you susceptible to unconscious biases. This is unavoidable so the best you can do is identify likely biases, try to interrupt them, and organise processes or systems to mitigate them. Specific biases and heuristics are explored in other models. People are susceptible to nudges. Another implication of fast thinking and following the path of least resistance is that people are susceptible to nudges, or tweaks to the environment which reduce friction, provide extra resistance and generally encourage particular behaviours. You have limited cognitive power, use it strategically. Slow thinking is powerful but effortful. Set yourself up to use your cognitive energy at important moments for key decisions. There’s a reason why the likes of Steve Jobs and President Obama wore similar clothes each day — they were relying on fast thinking for the small stuff and saving their cognitive juice for the important decisions. https://modelthinkers.com/mental-model/fast-and-slow-thinking 9 2. Four stages of learning 9/7/20 | 15 competence incompetence 3 - conscious competence 2 - conscious incompetence the person achieves 'conscious competence' in a the person becomes aware of the existence skill when they can perform it reliably at will and relevance of the skill the person will not reliably perform the skill the person is therefore also aware of their unless thinking about it - the skill is not yet deficiency in this area, ideally by attempting conscious 'second nature' or 'automatic' or trying to use the skill the person should be able to demonstrate the the person realises that by improving their skill to another, but is unlikely to be able to teach skill or ability in this area their effectiveness it well to another person will improve practise is the singlemost effective way to move from stage 3 to 4 4 - unconscious competence 1 - unconscious incompetence the skill becomes so practised that it enters the the person is not aware that they have a unconscious parts of the brain - it becomes particular deficiency in the area concerned 'second nature' the person might deny the relevance or unconscious common examples are driving, sports activities, usefulness of the new skill typing, manual dexterity tasks, listening and the person must become conscious of their communicating incompetence before development of the the person might now be able to teach others in new skill or learning can begin the skill concerned Source: https://www.businessballs.com/self-awareness/conscious-competence-learning- model/#conscious-competence-theory-origins 10 3. Theory of communication 3a Communication wall Communication wall: intended ≠ Said said ≠ Heard heard ≠ Understood understood ≠ Agreed agreed ≠ Done 3b Levels of communication The model of the logical levels of change, by American psychologist Robert Dilts based on the model of learning of Gregory Bateson, provides a useful framework for deciding at what level to work to bring about a required change. The level of purpose shows your sources of inspiration, your mission, and your motives. The level of identity contains statements that describe how you think of yourself as a person. They are “I am” statements, such as “I am a successful person, I am a teacher, I am an optimist” etc. 11 The level of belief systems and values contains statements about you, other people and situations that you hold to be true, emotionally held views not based on fact. They serve as an internal incentive or as an internal prohibition. Values are the criteria against which you make decisions, qualities that you hold to be important to you in the way you live your life, for example honesty, openness, integrity, fun. Competencies are resources that you have available to you in the form of skills and qualities, which you have acquired through training and experience. For example sensitivity, adaptability, outcome thinking, flexibility. Many organizations are paying increasing attention to competency based training and development. Behaviour is what you think, do and say, what you express externally to the world around you. It is the part of you that people can see and hear, unlike identity, competencies and beliefs and values, which are internal. Examples: asking questions, smiling, smoking, looking at someone, losing your temper, setting yourself priorities. Environment refers to everything outside yourself: the place in which you work, the economy, the people around you, your business, your friends and family, your customers. When people say: I was in the right place at the right time; they attribute success to external factors. Personal congruence: a focused state in which your energies are harnessed to pull in one direction. Prerequisite: to know what it is you want. In other words, a well-formed outcome (not: what’s the problem but what do I want to achieve). Relevance for effective interaction: 12 4. Reflective skills 13 5. Goal setting: identifying scope A. Identify the problem / assignment and formulate your goal B. Then explore the scope of your goal by answering the following questions: 1 What would you* or your client want to achieve with this goal? 2 How could you break this goal down into sub goals? 3a What have you or your client tried to do about the problem so far? 3b And what effect(s) have you experienced? 3c How can you use this experience for working on your goal? 4 Which first step towards your goal would be easiest for you to take? 5 Which qualities in your team can support you in taking this first step? *For ‘you’ also read ‘your team’ Examples of mental roadblocks how we look at the problem Knowledge: ack of facts Instead: do research A tude: ack of convic on Instead: re establish a worthwhile goal ack of mo va on Instead: iden fy whether it s worth it foryou Skills: ack of a star ng point Instead: ust start, you can always change it later ack of perspec ve Instead: involve others 14 6. Theory of Flip-Thinking: the skill of changing perspectives (verb, flip*think*ing; flip-thought; a (thinking) technique which is used to transform problems into opportunities; synonym yes-and-thinking; antonym yes-but-thinking, thinking in terms of threats and limitations) “Omdenken” – The Dutch Art of Flip-Thinking, is transforming problems into opportunities. With this way of thinking you look at reality the way it is, and you focus on what you can do with it. You use the problem’s energy to create something new. The founder of Omdenken is Berthold Gunster, best-selling author of ‘Yes-but® what if it all works out’, among others. How does it work? The first step is turning a problem into a fact. Making the step from YES-BUT it isn’t the way it should be and that’s a problem to YES-AND (it is what it is). Then you look for new opportunities that arise after you completely accepting the facts, saying ‘yes’ to reality. Flip-Thinking is a technique that consists of 2 steps: Deconstructing is turning the problem into a fact. You take a problem, remove ‘what should be’ and you’re left with ‘what is’. Constructing is transforming existing facts into a new opportunity. You start with a fact, and see what you can do with it. Simple, really. https://omdenken.com/flip-thinking/ Examples 15 7. Intercultural case Alena, a Slovak PhD student is visiting a university in the Netherlands to conduct research. One day, her Dutch colleagues invite her to give a short presentation about her research. She prepares diligently because she does not have much experience in public speaking. The day before the presentation she meets Geert Visser, a Dutch PhD student from het department and they talk about the upcoming presentation. She confesses to Geert that this will be her first experience giving such a talk. The next day her Dutch colleagues find Alena’s topic interesting and they discuss it after the presentation. Some of them do not agree with Alena’s assumptions and suggest different solutions. Alena had not expected such an open and public discussion and takes their comments personally. What troubles her most is that Geert is among those expressing the most disagreement. After the presentation, Alena avoids Geert. 16 8. Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity (article) Working on Common Cross-cultural Communication Challenges by Marcelle E. DuPraw and Marya Axner We all communicate with others all the time -- in our homes, in our workplaces, in the groups we belong to, and in the community. No matter how well we think we understand each other, communication is hard. Just think, for example, how often we hear things like, "He doesn't get it," or "She didn't really hear what I meant to say." "Culture" is often at the root of communication challenges. Our culture influences how we approach problems, and how we participate in groups and in communities. When we participate in groups we are often surprised at how differently people approach their work together. Culture is a complex concept, with many different definitions. But, simply put, "culture" refers to a group or community with which we share common experiences that shape the way we understand the world. It includes groups that we are born into, such as gender, race, or national origin. It also includes groups we join or become part of. For example, we can acquire a new culture by moving to a new region, by a change in our economic status, or by becoming disabled. When we think of culture this broadly, we realize we all belong to many cultures at once. Our histories are a critical piece of our cultures. Historical experiences -- whether of five years ago or of ten generations back -- shape who we are. Knowledge of our history can help us understand ourselves and one another better. Exploring the ways in which various groups within our society have related to each other is key to opening channels for cross-cultural communication. Six Fundamental Patterns of Cultural Differences In a world as complex as ours, each of us is shaped by many factors, and culture is one of the powerful forces that acts on us. Anthropologists Kevin Avruch and Peter Black explain the importance of culture this way:...One's own culture provides the "lens" through which we view the world; the "logic"... by which we order it; the "grammar"... by which it makes sense. 1 In other words, culture is central to what we see, how we make sense of what we see, and how we express ourselves. As people from different cultural groups take on the exciting challenge of working together, cultural values sometimes conflict. We can misunderstand each other, and react in ways that can hinder what are otherwise promising partnerships. Oftentimes, we aren't aware that culture is acting upon us. Sometimes, we are not even aware that we have cultural values or assumptions that are different from others'. Six fundamental patterns of cultural differences -- ways in which cultures, as a whole, tend to vary from one another -- are described below. The descriptions point out some of the recurring causes of cross-cultural communication difficulties. As you enter into multicultural dialogue or collaboration, keep these generalized differences in mind. Next time you find yourself in a confusing situation, and you suspect that cross-cultural differences are at play, try reviewing this list. Ask yourself how culture may be shaping your own reactions, and try to see the world from others' points of view. 17 1. Different Communication Styles The way people communicate varies widely between, and even within, cultures. One aspect of communication style is language usage. Across cultures, some words and phrases are used in different ways. For example, even in countries that share the English language, the meaning of "yes" varies from "maybe, I'll consider it" to "definitely so," with many shades in between. Another major aspect of communication style is the degree of importance given to non- verbal communication. Non-verbal communication includes not only facial expressions and gestures; it also involves seating arrangements, personal distance, and sense of time. In addition, different norms regarding the appropriate degree of assertiveness in communicating can add to cultural misunderstandings. For instance, some white Americans typically consider raised voices to be a sign that a fight has begun, while some black, Jewish and Italian Americans often feel that an increase in volume is a sign of an exciting conversation among friends. Thus, some white Americans may react with greater alarm to a loud discussion than would members of some American ethnic or non-white racial groups. 2. Different Attitudes Toward Conflict Some cultures view conflict as a positive thing, while others view it as something to be avoided. In the U.S., conflict is not usually desirable; but people often are encouraged to deal directly with conflicts that do arise. In fact, face-to-face meetings customarily are recommended as the way to work through whatever problems exist. In contrast, in many Eastern countries, open conflict is experienced as embarrassing or demeaning; as a rule, differences are best worked out quietly. A written exchange might be the favored means to address the conflict. 3. Different Approaches to Completing Tasks From culture to culture, there are different ways that people move toward completing tasks. Some reasons include different access to resources, different judgments of the rewards associated with task completion, different notions of time, and varied ideas about how relationship-building and task-oriented work should go together. When it comes to working together effectively on a task, cultures differ with respect to the importance placed on establishing relationships early on in the collaboration. A case in point, Asian and Hispanic cultures tend to attach more value to developing relationships at the beginning of a shared project and more emphasis on task completion toward the end as compared with European-Americans. European-Americans tend to focus immediately on the task at hand, and let relationships develop as they work on the task. This does not mean that people from any one of these cultural backgrounds are more or less committed to accomplishing the task, or value relationships more or less; it means they may pursue them differently. 4. Different Decision-Making Styles The roles individuals play in decision-making vary widely from culture to culture. For example, in the U.S., decisions are frequently delegated -- that is, an official assigns responsibility for a particular matter to a subordinate. In many Southern European and Latin American countries, there is a strong value placed on holding decision-making 18 responsibilities oneself. When decisions are made by groups of people, majority rule is a common approach in the U.S.; in Japan consensus is the preferred mode. Be aware that individuals' expectations about their own roles in shaping a decision may be influenced by their cultural frame of reference. 5. Different Attitudes Toward Disclosure In some cultures, it is not appropriate to be frank about emotions, about the reasons behind a conflict or a misunderstanding, or about personal information. Keep this in mind when you are in a dialogue or when you are working with others. When you are dealing with a conflict, be mindful that people may differ in what they feel comfortable revealing. Questions that may seem natural to you -- What was the conflict about? What was your role in the conflict? What was the sequence of events? -- may seem intrusive to others. The variation among cultures in attitudes toward disclosure is also something to consider before you conclude that you have an accurate reading of the views, experiences, and goals of the people with whom you are working. 6. Different Approaches to Knowing Notable differences occur among cultural groups when it comes to epistemologies -- that is, the ways people come to know things. European cultures tend to consider information acquired through cognitive means, such as counting and measuring, more valid than other ways of coming to know things. Compare that to African cultures' preference for affective ways of knowing, including symbolic imagery and rhythm. Asian cultures' epistemologies tend to emphasize the validity of knowledge gained through striving toward transcendence.3 Recent popular works demonstrate that our own society is paying more attention to previously overlooked ways of knowing.4 Indeed, these different approaches to knowing could affect ways of analyzing a community problem or finding ways to resolve it. Some members of your group may want to do library research to understand a shared problem better and identify possible solutions. Others may prefer to visit places and people who have experienced challenges like the ones you are facing, and get a feeling for what has worked elsewhere. Respecting Our Differences and Working Together In addition to helping us to understand ourselves and our own cultural frames of reference, knowledge of these six patterns of cultural difference can help us to understand the people who are different from us. An appreciation of patterns of cultural difference can assist us in processing what it means to be different in ways that are respectful of others, not faultfinding or damaging. Anthropologists Avruch and Black have noted that, when faced by an interaction that we do not understand, people tend to interpret the others involved as "abnormal," "weird," or "wrong." 5 This tendency, if indulged, gives rise on the individual level to prejudice. If this propensity is either consciously or unconsciously integrated into organizational structures, then prejudice takes root in our institutions -- in the structures, laws, policies, and procedures that shape our lives. Consequently, it is vital that we learn to control the human tendency to translate "different from me" into "less than me." We can learn to do this. We can also learn to collaborate across cultural lines as individuals and as a society. Awareness of cultural differences doesn't have to divide us from each other. It doesn't have to paralyze us either, 19 for fear of not saying the "right thing." In fact, becoming more aware of our cultural differences, as well as exploring our similarities, can help us communicate with each other more effectively. Recognizing where cultural differences are at work is the first step toward understanding and respecting each other. Learning about different ways that people communicate can enrich our lives. People's different communication styles reflect deeper philosophies and world views which are the foundation of their culture. Understanding these deeper philosophies gives us a broader picture of what the world has to offer us. Learning about people's cultures has the potential to give us a mirror image of our own. We have the opportunity to challenge our assumptions about the "right" way of doing things, and consider a variety of approaches. We have a chance to learn new ways to solve problems that we had previously given up on, accepting the difficulties as "just the way things are." Lastly, if we are open to learning about people from other cultures, we become less lonely. Prejudice and stereotypes separate us from whole groups of people who could be friends and partners in working for change. Many of us long for real contact. Talking with people different from ourselves gives us hope and energizes us to take on the challenge of improving our communities and worlds. Guidelines for Multicultural Collaboration Cultural questions -- about who we are and how we identify ourselves -- are at the heart of Toward a More Perfect Union in an Age of Diversity, and will be at the heart of your discussions. As you set to work on multicultural collaboration in your community, keep in mind these additional guidelines: Learn from generalizations about other cultures, but don't use those generalizations to stereotype, "write off," or oversimplify your ideas about another person. The best use of a generalization is to add it to your storehouse of knowledge so that you better understand and appreciate other interesting, multi-faceted human beings. Practice, practice, practice. That's the first rule, because it's in the doing that we actually get better at cross-cultural communication. Don't assume that there is one right way (yours!) to communicate. Keep questioning your assumptions about the "right way" to communicate. For example, think about your body language; postures that indicate receptivity in one culture might indicate aggressiveness in another. Don't assume that breakdowns in communication occur because other people are on the wrong track. Search for ways to make the communication work, rather than searching for who should receive the blame for the breakdown. Listen actively and empathetically. Try to put yourself in the other person's shoes. Especially when another person's perceptions or ideas are very different from your own, you might need to operate at the edge of your own comfort zone. Respect others' choices about whether to engage in communication with you. Honor their opinions about what is going on. Stop, suspend judgment, and try to look at the situation as an outsider. Be prepared for a discussion of the past. Use this as an opportunity to develop an understanding from "the other's" point of view, rather than getting defensive or impatient. Acknowledge historical events that have taken place. Be open to learning more about them. Honest acknowledgment of the mistreatment and oppression that have taken place on the basis of cultural difference is vital for effective communication. 20 Awareness of current power imbalances -- and an openness to hearing each other's perceptions of those imbalances -- is also necessary for understanding each other and working together. Remember that cultural norms may not apply to the behavior of any particular individual. We are all shaped by many, many factors -- our ethnic background, our family, our education, our personalities -- and are more complicated than any cultural norm could suggest. Check your interpretations if you are uncertain what is meant. FOOTNOTES 1. Avruch, Kevin and Peter Black, "Conflict Resolution in Intercultural Settings: Problems and Prospects," in Conflict Resolution Theory and Practice: Integration and Application, edited by Dennis Sandole and Hugo van der Merwe. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1993. 2. This list and some of the explanatory text is drawn from DuPraw and Warfield (1991), an informally published workshop manual co-authored by one of the authors of this piece. 3. Nichols, Edwin J., a presentation made to the World Psychiatric Association and Association of Psychiatrists in Nigeria, November 10, 1976. 4. For example, for research on women's approaches to knowledge, see o Lorraine Code, What Can She Know?: Feminist Theory and the Construction of Knowledge. Ithaca: Cornell, 1991 o M.F. Belenky, N.R. Goldberger, & J. M. Tarule, Women's Ways of Knowing: The Development of the Self, Voice and Mind. New York: Basic Books, 1986 o Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women's Development. Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA, 1982. 5. Avruch and Black, 1993. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Marcelle E. DuPraw is Program Director at the National Institute for Dispute Resolution in Washington, DC. Marya Axner is a consultant in leadership development, cross-cultural communication, and gender equity. 21 9. Cultural values: what is fundamentally important for a person a. What are “values”? Values are standards of what we deem acceptable or unacceptable, right or wrong, important or unimportant, good or bad. They represent the “central tendencies” of what a group of people is taught as being important and virtuous. Cultural values are the principles that guide how we should think and act as honorable and contributing members of our society. We need to be careful not to stereotype or over-generalize about someone’s cultural background. Not everyone from the same culture will hold the same values, nor will they interpret and act in the same way based on the same values. We all adjust our behavior according to the situation in which we find ourselves. Cultural Detective core values are offered as context-specific clues to help better understand a friend or colleague. They are not intended as rigid categories or universal predictors of the behavior of everyone in a specific culture. A successful Cultural Detective uses core values as clues to investigate intercultural misunderstandings and to begin to build effective intercultural communication bridges. Most cultures have an "ideal" and a "real" version of both values and behavior: that to which people aspire, and that which actually happens. In addition, there are often trends in society that run in direct opposition to prevailing values, or groups of people who resist traditional values and offer a stark contrast to them. Whether by following them or resisting them, a culture’s prevailing values provide important clues to help us build relationships and accomplish our goals. Why are Cultural Values Important? No one can predict what another person will think, do, or say. However, understanding the values that may influence our colleagues and neighbors can offer useful ideas about what to expect and how to work with someone from a culture different than our own. Values represent beliefs and attitudes that drive personal behavior, business practices, and political decisions. Our behavior is based on the values we have learned, both explicitly and unconsciously, through our families, communities, places of worship, schools, and the media. It is important to remember that our colleagues are individuals who have been influenced by multiple cultures including the nation(s) in which we have lived, gender, education and professional training, socio-economic level, age, sexual orientation, and spiritual tradition, among many others. We are all unique, the products of multiple influences plus our own personalities. 22 b. Netherlands/Dutch Values Lens Egalitarisme/Egalitarianism All people are equal regardless of hierarchy, status, seniority, or sexual orientation. Managers, subordinates, and customers are treated the same way. expression: Steek je kop niet boven het maaiveld uit. Don’t stick your head above the corn field. (If you think you are better than others, people will bring you down to their level.) Possible Negative Perception: Arrogantie/Arrogance There is virtually no respect for status nor any use of academic or other titles. Little respect is demonstrated for the wisdom of elderly people in business. Subordinates want to be treated as if they were managing themselves, although in reality, they are subordinates in the organization. The Dutch think of themselves as very tolerant toward all minority groups; however, this is not always the case in practice. Example: Customer service can seem poor since customers are treated as equals. The customer is not king. Individualisme/Individualism Each person should accept full responsibility for both the positive and negative consequences of their choices and actions. The Dutch have a desire to know “why” things are done the way they are done, through examination of intentions, risks, and consequences. They expect to make decisions on their own. There is very little connection between work and personal life. One feels in control when self- reliant, and avoids depending on a group or network, which might imply losing control. One asks for help if help is needed, and expects others to do the same. Possible Negative Perception: Onwetendheid/Ignorance Only superiors are supposed to make decisions and take responsibility. There is unwillingness from Dutch subordinates to take orders unless they are fully informed about their role and task. Example: Dutch subordinates seem to think they are CEOs taking full responsibility for their work. The need for tight control, and full self-reliance makes them seem inflexible. 23 Pragmatisch/Pragmatism Most Dutch use linear thinking and a functional approach. They favor practicality and efficiency. Things are concrete. Dutch tend to be monochronic, doing only one thing at a time, and are very time conscious. Soberness and a dislike of unnecessary waste or excess are standard attitudes. Vendors make customers aware of what they are buying, thinking that if they do so, fifty percent of the responsibility of the sale is with the buyer. Possible Negative Perception: Niet harmonieus/Lack of harmony Dutch can be very goal-oriented, with little empathy for systems and people, and lacking a high need for smoothness and harmony. Dutch can be slow and incapable of doing several things at the same time. Work is fragmented. Dutch consensus generally means everybody must suffer a bit by making concessions. Examples: Dutch do not generally value relationships after a goal has been achieved. The sales person frequently does not take responsibility for the articles or services that he or she sells. Directheid/Directness Politeness and social lubricants may cover up the truth; therefore, the Dutch can be very suspicious of them and usually dislike them. The Dutch expect others to tell them when they make a mistake so they can improve their performance. They distrust anyone who does not give opinions directly. Linear and direct communication is used, and an identical message is sent, regardless of the status of the person receiving the message. Possible Negative Perception: Bot/Rude Dutch can seem disrespectful, using few social lubricants (impolite), and lacking in diplomacy. Nonverbal messages are subtle and not frequent. The Dutch are often unable to read the context of a situation and unable to understand indirect communication. They tend to be impatient. Examples: Generally speaking, a Dutch questioner expects a yes or no answer with a clear rationale. They may even be annoyed by stories or parables that others see as right to the point and convincing. Consensus en Procedures/Consensus and Procedures The Dutch tend to be uncomfortable with uncertainty. Since no one gives orders, they bear all the responsibility themselves. When an important decision is to be taken, all involved voice their opinions, after which consensus must be reached. This may involve several meetings. Once consensus is reached all will cooperate; the job gets done quickly and runs smoothly. Procedures are well thought out and prevent mistakes. This means that while the decision takes time, the implementation is often quick and efficient. Possible Negative Perception: Niet competent en star/Incompetence and inflexibility Workers may seem inflexible and slow. 24 c. Vietnam values lens Hòa thuận/Harmony Hòa thuận/harmony is a sense of balance and order that Vietnamese generally consider essential to functioning well in social institutions and in relationships with nature. Confrontation, conflict, or diversity that may cause turbulence or disorder are to be avoided. Each individual should consider the big picture, and not act according to his or her own interest. Tùy cơ ứng biến or linh động/Flexibility Vietnamese are famous for their ability to adapt. Their turbulent history has forced them to adopt a mindset of flexibility and selective adoption. They have successfully borrowed what they perceived as good cultural practices from their wartime enemies (the Chinese, the French, and, for part of Việt Nam, the Americans) while retaining their opposition to what the governments of these countries wanted to impose on them. For the average Vietnamese there are no hopeless situations, no real dead ends. Goals may change as matters unfold. Trách nhiệm/Mutual obligation Vietnamese children grow up learning to conceive themselves as part of a “we.” The loyalty to the group that is an essential element of a collectivistic society is especially emphasized among family members in Việt Nam. This is slightly different from the collectivistic Japanese, who focus their loyalty on companies, and the collectivistic Chinese, whose loyalty focuses on communities. Vietnamese children are taught to be aware of their debt to their parents, a debt that they can never fully repay and that increases if the children find success in life. This idea seems more salient in Việt Nam than in other Asian countries. In a survey, 99 percent of Vietnamese agreed that parents are to be respected regardless of their qualities and possible failings. In Japan, by contrast, 74 percent of respondents agreed with that idea; in China, 78 percent; Taiwan, 91 percent; South Korea, 93 percent. Furthermore, 97 percent of Vietnamese respondents said that one of their main goals in life has been to make their parents proud. In a study of Vietnamese business people, 44 percent said the purpose of doing business was to serve their families. 25 òng yêu nước/Patriotic In the 2001 World Values Survey, which included Việt Nam for the first time, 98 percent of all Vietnamese indicated their willingness to fight for their country should there be another war. The long and tragic history of Việt Nam, with 1000 years under the influence of China, 100 years under French subjugation, and a 10-year civil war against US American domination, has created an image of the Vietnamese as people who would die for their country. However, Vietnamese patriotism is slightly different from nationalism. The love for the country is triggered when the Vietnamese feel their country’s interests are at stake, either militarily or in the face of perceived abuse by foreign companies, which are sometimes seen as exploiting local resources. Nationalism is more associated with the generalized pride in one’s country that is more typical among the collectivistic Chinese. Giá trị sinh tồn/Survival values Việt Nam’s history is full of ups and downs, and though it is changing at break-neck speed, the majority in rural areas still suffer from substandard living and working conditions. They struggle to survive. Together with tùy cơ ứng biến or linh động (flexibility), survival values allow a person to make the best use of all available resources, not only for the challenging present but for the insecure future. People often have more than one job, such as a family business or side-work connected with their employer. People are constantly concerned about high costs and the uncertainties that might afflict them. Phụ nữ năng động/Women’s active role As is the case in many other Asian countries, women in Việt Nam have lower social status than men. But the gender status gap is much smaller in Việt Nam. Ancient Vietnamese culture was matriarchal; women were respected and honored. Traditionally, women were responsible for doing business, while the men put their effort into academic achievement and securing a governmental post. The matriarchal tradition eroded during the country’s long domination by the patriarchal Chinese. But even today it is not unusual to encounter outspoken and high-ranking female officials in Việt Nam. Kính trên nhường dưới/Hierarchy Vietnamese society tends to organize in clear hierarchies that reflect sharp differences in status and power. The assumption that society is organized hierarchically is embedded in the language, and thus, is reinforced almost unconsciously. The way people are addressed reflects their age, status, and relationship with the others in the interaction. Vietnamese people ask foreigners, “How old are you?” in order to know how to talk with them properly. Workplaces centralize power in a few hands. Supervisors are numerous. Managers are expected to have power both in directing the organization and in knowing more than their subordinates know. However, the unequal supervisor-supervisee relationship does not mean that supervisors operate without constraints. Their authority must not be questioned, but they do have obligations. The subordinates owe the boss respect and obedience (kính trên), but the boss owes the subordinate the protection and care (nhường dưới) that a father or mother might provide. Daily life example: As opposed to English which uses only one word for “you” and “I,” Vietnamese has numerous variations on these pronouns depending on a variety of factors: age, relationship to one another, status, gender, various other circumstances, and personal mood. Each mode of addressing one’s self or another person will dictate a distinct mode of communication with certain extensions of respect given accordingly. 26 10. Communication Styles Getting to Si, Ja, Oui, Hai, and Da How to negotiate across cultures by Erin Meyer Summary. To be effective, a negotiator must take stock of the subtle messages being passed around the table. In international negotiations, however, you may not know how to interpret your counterpart’s communication accurately, especially when it takes the form of unspoken signals. The author identifies five rules of thumb for negotiating in other cultures: - Adapt the way you express disagreement. In some cultures, it’s OK to say “I totally disagree.” In others, that would provoke anger and possibly an irreconcilable breakdown of the relationship. - Know when to bottle it up or let it all pour out. Raising your voice when excited, laughing passionately, even putting a friendly arm around your counterpart—these are common behaviors in some cultures but may signal a lack of professionalism in others. - Learn how the other culture builds trust. Negotiators in some countries build trust according to the confidence they feel in someone’s accomplishments, skills, and reliability. For others, trust arises from emotional closeness, empathy, or friendship. - Avoid yes-or-no questions. Instead of asking “Will you do this?” try “How long would it take you to get this done?” - Be careful about putting it in writing. Americans rely heavily on written contracts, but in countries where human relationships carry more weight in business, contracts are less detailed and may not be legally binding. ********************************************************* Tim Carr, an American working for a defense company based in the midwestern United States, was about to enter a sensitive bargaining session with a high-level Saudi Arabian customer, but he wasn’t particularly concerned. Carr was an experienced negotiator and was well-trained in basic principles: Separate the people from the problem. Define your BATNA (best alternative to a negotiated agreement up front. Focus on interests, not positions. He’d been there, read that, and done the training. The lengthy phone call to Saudi Arabia proceeded according to plan. Carr carefully steered the would-be customer to accept the deal, and it seemed he had reached his goal. “So let me ust review,” he said. “You’ve agreed that you will provide the supplies for next year’s pro ect and contact your counterpart at the energy office to get his approval. I will then send a letter….Next you’ve said that you will….” But when Carr finished his detailed description of who had agreed to what, he was greeted with silence. Finally a soft but firm voice said, “I told you I would do it. You think I don’t keep my promises? That I’m not good on my word?” That was the end of the discussion—and of the deal. The many theories about negotiation may work perfectly when you’re doing a deal with a company in your own country. But in today’s globalized economy you could be negotiating a oint venture in China, an outsourcing agreement in India, or a supplier contract in Sweden. If so, you might find yourself working with very different norms of communication. What gets you to “yes” in one culture gets you to “no” in another. To be effective, a negotiator must have a sense of how his counterpart is reacting. Does she want to cooperate? Is she eager, frustrated, doubtful? If you take stock of subtle 27 messages, you can adjust your own behavior accordingly. In an international negotiation, however, you may not have the contextual understanding to interpret your counterpart’s communication— especially unspoken signals—accurately. In my work and research, I find that when managers from different parts of the world negotiate, they frequently misread such signals, reach erroneous conclusions, and act, as Tim Carr did, in ways that thwart their ultimate goals. In this article, I draw on my work on cross-cultural management to identify five rules of thumb for negotiating with someone whose cultural style of communication differs from yours. The trick, as we will see, is to be aware of key negotiation signals and to adjust both your perceptions and your actions in order to get the best results. 1. Adapt the Way You Express Disagreement In some cultures it’s appropriate to say “I totally disagree” or to tell the other party he’s wrong. This is seen as part of a normal, healthy discussion. A Russian student of mine told me, “In Russia we enter the negotiation ready for a great big debate. If your Russian counterpart tells you passionately that he completely disagrees with every point you have made, it’s not a sign that things are starting poorly. On the contrary, it’s an invitation to a lively discussion.” Open disagreement may be seen as positive if it’s expressed calmly and factually. In other cultures the same behavior would provoke anger and possibly an irreconcilable breakdown of the relationship. An American manager named Sean Green, who had spent years negotiating partnerships in Mexico, told me that he quickly learned that if he wanted to make progress toward a deal, he needed to say things like “I do not quite understand your point” and “Please explain more why you think that.” If he said, “I disagree with that,” the discussions might shut down completely. The key is to listen for verbal cues—specifically, what linguistics experts call “upgraders” and “downgraders.” Upgraders are words you might use to strengthen your disagreement, such as “totally,” “completely,” “absolutely.” Downgraders—such as “partially,” “a little bit,” “maybe”— soften the disagreement. Russians, the French, Germans, Israelis, and the Dutch use a lot of upgraders with disagreement. Mexicans, Thai, the Japanese, Peruvians, and Ghanaians use a lot of downgraders. Try to understand upgraders and downgraders within their own cultural context. If a Peruvian you’re negotiating with says he “disagrees a little,” a serious problem may well be brewing. But if your German counterpart says he “completely disagrees,” you may be on the verge of a highly enjoyable debate. 2. Know When to Bottle It Up or Let It All Pour Out In some cultures it’s common—and entirely appropriate—during negotiations to raise your voice when excited, laugh passionately, touch your counterpart on the arm, or even put a friendly arm around him. In other cultures such self-expression not only feels intrusive or surprising but may even demonstrate a lack of professionalism. What makes international negotiations interesting (and complicated) is that people from some very emotionally expressive cultures—such as Brazil, Mexico, and Saudi Arabia—may also avoid open disagreement. See the exhibit “Preparing to Face Your Counterpart.” Mexicans tend to disagree softly yet express emotions openly. As a Mexican manager, Pedro Alvarez, says, “In Mexico we perceive emotional expressiveness as a sign of honesty. Yet we are highly sensitive to negative 28 comments and offended easily. If you disagree with me too strongly, I would read that as a signal that you don’t like me.” In other cultures—such as Denmark, Germany, and the Netherlands—open disagreement is seen as positive as long as it is expressed calmly and factually. A German negotiator, Dirk Firnhaber, explains that the German word Sachlichkeit, most closely translated in English as “ob ectivity,” refers to separating opinions from the person expressing them. If he says, “I totally disagree,” he means to debate the opinions, not disapprove of the individual. People from cultures like these may view emotional expressiveness as a lack of maturity or professionalism in a business context. Firnhaber tells a story about one deal he negotiated with a French company. It began calmly enough, but as the discussion continued, the French managers grew animated: “The more we discussed, the more our French colleagues became emotional—with voices raised, arms waving, ears turning red…the whole thing.” Firnhaber was increasingly uncomfortable with the conversation and at times thought the deal would fall apart. To his surprise, the French took a very different view: “When the discussion was over, they seemed delighted with the meeting, and we all went out for a great dinner.” So the second rule of international negotiations is to recognize what an emotional outpouring (whether yours or theirs) signifies in the culture you are negotiating with, and to adapt your reaction accordingly. Was it a bad sign that the Swedish negotiators sat calmly across the table from you, never entered into open debate, and showed little passion during the discussion? Not at all. But if you encountered the same behavior while negotiating in Israel, it might be a sign that the deal was about to die an early death. 29 3. Learn How the Other Culture Builds Trust During a negotiation, both parties are explicitly considering whether the deal will benefit their own business and implicitly trying to assess whether they can trust each other. Here cultural differences hit us hard. How we come to trust someone varies dramatically from one part of the world to another. Consider this story from John Katz, an Australian negotiating a joint venture in China. Initially, he felt he was struggling to get the information his side needed, so he asked his company’s China consultant for advice. The consultant suggested that Katz was going at the deal too quickly and should spend more time building trust. When Katz said he’d been working hard to do ust that by supplying a lot of information from his side and answering all questions transparently, the consultant replied, “The problem is that you need to approach them from a relationship perspective, not a business perspective. You won’t get what you want unless you develop trust differently.” Research in this area divides trust into two categories: cognitive and affective. Cognitive trust is based on the confidence you feel in someone’s accomplishments, skills, and reliability. This trust comes from the head. In a negotiation it builds through the business interaction: You know your stuff. You are reliable, pleasant, and consistent. You demonstrate that your product or service is of high quality. I trust you. Affective trust arises from feelings of emotional closeness, empathy, or friendship. It comes from the heart. We laugh together, relax together, and see each other on a personal level, so I feel affection or empathy for you. I trust you. The survey revealed that in negotiations (and business in general) Americans draw a sharp line between cognitive and affective trust. American culture has a long tradition of separating the emotional from the practical. Mixing the two risks conflict of interest and is viewed as unprofessional. Chinese managers, however, connect the two, and the interplay between cognitive and affective trust is much stronger. They are quite likely to develop personal bonds where they have financial or business ties. In most emerging or newly emerged markets, from BRIC to Southeast Asia and Africa, negotiators are unlikely to trust their counterparts until an affective connection has been made. The same is true for most Middle Eastern and Mediterranean cultures. That may make negotiations challenging for task- oriented Americans, Australians, Brits, or Germans. Ricardo Bartolome, a Spanish manager, told me that he finds Americans to be very friendly on the surface, sometimes surprisingly so, but difficult to get to know at a deeper level. “During a negotiation they are so politically correct and careful not to show negative emotion,” he said. “It makes it hard for us to trust them.” So in certain cultures you need to build an affective bond or emotional connection as early as possible. Invest time in meals and drinks or tea, karaoke, golf, whatever it may be , and don’t talk about the deal during these activities. Let your guard down and show your human side, including your weaknesses. Demonstrate genuine interest in the other party and make a friend. Be patient: In China, for example, this type of bond may take a long time to build. Eventually, you won’t have ust a friend you’ll have a deal. 4. Avoid Yes-or-No Questions At some point during your negotiation you’ll need to put a proposal on the table—and at that moment you will expect to hear whether or not the other side accepts. One of the most confounding aspects of international negotiations is that in some cultures the word “yes” may be used when the 30 real meaning is no. In other cultures “no” is the most frequent knee-jerk response, but it often means “ et’s discuss further.” In either case, misunderstanding the message can lead to a waste of time or a muddled setback. A recent negotiation between a Danish company and its Indonesian supplier provides a case in point. One of the Danish executives wanted reassurance that the Indonesians could meet the desired deadline, so he asked them directly if the date was feasible. To his face they replied that it was, but a few days later they informed the company by e-mail that it was not. The Danish executive was aggrieved. “We’d already wasted weeks,” he says. “Why didn’t they tell us transparently during the meeting? We felt they had lied to us point-blank.” The problem can work the other way. The Indonesian manager went on to describe his experience negotiating with a French company for the first time: “When I asked them if they could kindly do something, the word ‘no’ flew out of their mouths—and not just once but often more like a ‘no-no- no-no,’ which feels to us like we are being slapped repeatedly.” He found out later that the French were actually happy to accede to his request; they had just wanted to debate it a bit before final agreement. Look for Cultural Bridges There’s no substitute for learning all you can about the culture you will be negotiating with. But taking a cultural bridge—someone who is from the other culture, has a foot in both cultures, or, at the very least, knows the other culture intimately—to the negotiating table will give you a head start. Of course, if one party doesn’t speak English well, it’s common to have the help of a translator but a cultural bridge can make a huge impact even if no linguistic divide exists. During breaks in the negotiation, for example, you can ask this person to interpret what’s going on between the lines. The British executive Sarah Stevens was leading a U.S. team negotiating a deal in Japan. The Japanese parties all spoke English well, but three hours into the negotiation Stevens realized that her team was doing 90% of the talking, which worried her. She asked a colleague from her company’s Japan office for advice. He explained that the Japanese often pause to think before speaking—and that they don’t find silence uncomfortable the way Americans or the British do. He advised Stevens to adopt the Japanese approach: After asking a question, wait patiently and quietly for an answer. He also told her that the Japanese often make decisions in groups, so they might need to confer before giving an answer. If after a period of silence no clear answer had been given, Stevens might suggest a short break so that they could have a sidebar. In Japan, he said, it is common to iron out a lot of potential conflicts in one-on-one informal discussions before the formal group meeting, which is seen more as a place to put a stamp on decisions already made. This particular nugget came too late for that trip, but Stevens made sure the next time to enable informal discussions in advance. Thanks to her cultural bridge, she got the deal she had hoped for. If your team has no obvious candidate for this role, look elsewhere in your company. But don’t make the common mistake of thinking that someone who speaks the language and has a parent from the culture will necessarily make a good cultural bridge. Consider this British manager of Korean origin: He looked Korean, had a Korean name, and spoke Korean with no accent, but he’d never lived or worked in Korea his parents had moved to Britain as teenagers. His company asked him to help with an important negotiation in Korea, but once there, he quickly realized that his team would have been better off without him. Because he spoke the language so well, the Koreans assumed that he would behave like a Korean, so they took offense 31 when he spoke to the wrong person in the room and when he confronted them too directly. As he observes, “If I hadn’t looked or sounded Korean, they would have forgiven me for behaving badly.” When you need to know whether your counterpart is willing to do something, but his answer to every question leaves you more confused than before, remember the fourth rule of cross-cultural negotiations: If possible, avoid posing a yes-or-no question. Rather than “Will you do this?” try “How long would it take you to get this done?” And when you do ask a yes-or-no question in Southeast Asia, Japan, or Korea (perhaps also in India or Latin America), engage all your senses and emotional antennae. Even if the response is affirmative, something may feel like no: an extra beat of silence, a strong sucking in of the breath, a muttered “I will try, but it will be difficult.” If so, the deal is probably not sealed. You may well have more negotiations in front of you. 5. Be Careful About Putting It in Writing American managers learn early on to repeat key messages frequently and recap a meeting in writing. “Tell them what you’re going to tell them, tell them, and then tell them what you’ve told them” is one of the first communication lessons taught in the United States. In Northern Europe, too, clarity and repetition are the basis of effective negotiation. But this good practice can all too often sour during negotiations in Africa or Asia. A woman from Burundi who was working for a Dutch company says, “In my culture, if we have a discussion on the phone and come to a verbal agreement, that would be enough for me. If you get off the phone and send me a written recap of the discussion, that would be a clear signal that you don’t trust me.” This, she says, repeatedly caused difficulty for her company’s negotiators, who recapped each discussion in writing as a matter of both habit and principle. In emerging markets, everything is dynamic; no deal is ever really 100% final. The difference in approach can make it difficult to write a contract. Americans rely heavily on written contracts—more so than any other culture in the world. As soon as two parties have agreed on the price and details, long documents outlining what will happen if the deal is not kept, and requiring signatures, are exchanged. In the U.S. these contracts are legally binding and make it easy to do business with people we otherwise have no reason to trust. But in countries where the legal system is traditionally less reliable, and relationships carry more weight in business, written contracts are less frequent. In these countries they are often a commitment to do business but may not be legally binding. Therefore they’re less detailed and less important. As one Nigerian manager explains, “If the moment we come to an agreement, you pull out the contract and hand me a pen, I start to worry. Do you think I won’t follow through? Are you trying to trap me?” In Nigeria and many other high-growth markets where the business environment is rapidly evolving, such as China and Indonesia, successful businesspeople must be much more flexible than is necessary (or desirable) in the West. In these cultures, a contract marks the beginning of a relationship, but it is understood that as the situation changes, the details of the agreement will also change. Consider the experience of John Wagner, an American who had been working out a deal with a Chinese supplier. After several days of tough negotiations, his team and its legal department drafted a contract that the Chinese seemed happy to sign. But about six weeks later they reopened discussion on points that the Americans thought had been set in stone. Wagner observes, “I see now 32 that we appeared irrationally inflexible to them. But at the time, we were hitting our heads against our desks.” For the Americans, the contract had closed the negotiation phase, and implementation would follow. But for the Chinese, signing the contract was just one step in the dance. So the fifth and final rule for negotiating internationally is to proceed cautiously with the contract. Ask your counterparts to draft the first version so that you can discern how much detail they are planning to commit to before you plunk down a 20-page document for them to sign. And be ready to revisit. When negotiating in emerging markets, remember that everything in these countries is dynamic, and no deal is ever really 100% final. Finally, don’t forget the universal rules: When you are negotiating a deal, you need to persuade and react, to convince and finesse, pushing your points while working carefully toward an agreement. In the heat of the discussion, what is spoken is important. But the trust you have built, the subtle messages you have understood, your ability to adapt your demeanor to the context at hand, will ultimately make the difference between success and failure—for Americans, for Chinese, for Brazilians, for everybody. A version of this article appeared in the December 2015 issue (pp.74–80) of Harvard Business Review. Erin Meyer is a professor at INSEAD, where she directs the executive education program Leading Across Borders and Cultures. She is the author of The Culture Map: Breaking Through the Invisible Boundaries of Global Business (PublicAffairs, 2014). Twitter: @ErinMeyerINSEAD 33 11. Article: Innovation Leadership Lessons from the Marshmallow Challenge by Scott D. Anthony December 09, 2014 Imagine a room filled with 30 people, divided into six teams. Each team gets 20 sticks of spaghetti, a yard of string, strips of scotch tape, and a single marshmallow. They have 18 minutes to build a free-standing structure that will enable the marshmallow to rest on top. This is the so- called marshmallow challenge, a staple of many design schools. It’s a great way to teach the benefits of rapid prototyping. Our team at Innosight also uses it as a staple in leadership development workshops. Here’s why. In an arresting seven-minute TED talk, Autodesk fellow Tom Wujec shares data suggesting that, while the average team produces a tower with a height of about 20 inches, business school students tend to significantly underperform the average. I’ve seen it with my own eyes. Fresh-faced graduates gather together. They spend the first few minutes trying to establish dominance. One emerges as a leader. The next few minutes are devoted to planning. Construction begins, usually with less than eight minutes left on the clock. Then, with about a minute to go, someone places the marshmallow on top of the beautiful tower, and….it collapses. While MBA students do poorly, kindergarteners beat the average. As the father of three young children, this does not surprise me. Children don’t dither they simply try something. And if it doesn’t work, they try again. Sure, groups can sometimes descend into chaos the teacher in my six-year-old daughter Holly’s first-grade class gives teams unlimited marshmallows because she’s worried someone will eat the single one before the tower is constructed), but the results can be stunning. What’s the lesson here? It’s hard to escape the conclusion that we all begin with creativity and curiosity, which too many of us systematically unlearn as we go through the education system and scale up the corporate ladder. 34 Still, teams made up of CEOs do better than the aspiring MBAs, though it’s not clear why. Perhaps they started from a much higher base, but it is also possible that people who make it to the top find a way to recover at least some of that innate curiosity. And they beat the kindergartners when they’re paired with their executive administrators. This result fits with many researchers’ consistent findings that that innovation happens most often when different mind- sets and skills collide. What these findings show us is that if it’s possible to suppress your innate urge to be creative and curious, it’s also possible to unleash it again. One way to tap into your inner kindergartner is to adopt what a Zen master would call “a beginner’s mind.” That is, to put yourself in situations where you don’t know the answer and don’t have the skills to find it. At work that might involve volunteering for a new-product launch or taking an assignment in a new country. Outside work that could mean learning a new language or picking up a new musical instrument. Another is to take a hard look at the nature of your associates and networks. If you’re like most people, your network will tend to be filled with people of the same background, who went to the same sorts of schools, who are in the same industry. Diversifying requires taking deliberate steps. Ask yourself: Do you have any mentors that are 20 years older than you are? Or 20 years younger? How many of your regular associates are artists, novelists, or entrepreneurs, who routinely deal with ambiguity? How many people do you know who’ve grown up in a different country, or even better, naturally think biculturally because they’ve lived in more than one? How many do you know outside your or your spouse’s field? There’s a simple way to start diversifying your network immediately, without leaving your building: go hug an alien. This advice was given to me from software entrepreneur Donna Auguste when we sat together on a board that was helping a newspaper company assess investments in innovation projects. What she was talking about were not real aliens, of course, but social ones — the people and every company has them who don’t quite fit in – the ones who make weird comments during meetings, who eat lunch alone, and are generally shunned. These people, who so often fill us with fear of social stigma (What was life like for them in high school !?!) – can often be vital sources for creative insight. Next time you’re in the lunch room, sit down next to one of those solitary diners, and ask him or her what’s new. Odds are it will be something you’re not currently thinking about. Odds are high as well, that when you are confronting a tough innovation challenge, it will be some odd-ball comment from one of these people that will point you in a new direction. It’s reasonable to assume that leaders will confront more, not less, ambiguity in the future. The best way to prepare is to seek every opportunity to plunge into chaos and radically diversify your innovation network. At the very worst, it could help you build a marshmallow tower that beats Holly’s. Scott D. Anthony is a clinical professor at Dartmouth College’s Tuck School of Business, a senior partner at Innosight, and the lead author of Eat, Sleep, Innovate (2020) and Dual Transformation (2017). 35 12. Effective team work: team Charter TEAM CANVAS 1 1. TEAM MEMBERS : Who is on the bus and what will each person individually bring to the team: e.g., role, personal core value, skills, personal slogan, character trait? 2. DRIVER: Who is behind the wheel? Who is navigating? 3. EXPECTATIONS: What do the team members expect from each other in order to be successful? 4. TEAM VALUES: What are the values the team lives by? Are these values recognized by all team members? 5. SLOGAN: What is the slogan you want to have on your bus? Is there anything that stands out and is recognizable for others? 6. OBSTACLES: What could prevent the team from working together fruitfully and reaching their goal? 7. ENERGY SOURCES: What generates energy in the group? What gets everybody running and going for the best results? 8. TEAM GOAL: What is the goal the team wants to reach? When are all the team efforts successful? 9. TROUBLE: What will you do when the shit hits the “van”? 36 TEAM CANVAS 2: STEP BY STEP GUIDE TO DRAWING UP YOUR TEAM CHARTER 1. Before you start Arrange for a comfortable environment. Surely not a meeting room. Let everyone do a short introduction. The person speaking should be standing. Another way is to have everybody make one simple visual of who they are, what is important for them, and what they strive for. This is a great way to getting to know each other and for breaking the ice! Have markers (fine tip) and paper for everybody Print or draw the canvas on a big sheet of paper Have plenty of sticky notes and markers ready Allow yourself 45-60 minutes of undisturbed time. 2. “Hello, my name is..." As mentioned it is very important that everybody is introduced properly, that people know what everybody's expectations are (why they are in the room) and that there is a relaxed atmosphere. If there are things preventing this, make sure they are dealt with upfront. 3. Back in the van y'all Ask every team member where they want to sit in the bus. If someone wants to sit in the driver’s seat. That's great! More room for you as a facilitator to facilitate! 4. Individual Individually people need to write on sticky notes what their expectations are (max 3), what they see as obstacles (max 3), their 1 most important value, and what will give them energy. Also each should write down the most important value they want to add to the group. Tip! There is no right or wrong. It is about finding the common ground and goals of the team. 5. Review Take a step back and have a discussion about the values expectations, values, energy sources, and obstacles. Again it is not a discussion about right or wrong, but about making sure they all can identify themselves with what is put on the charter. Either the team as a whole will come up with common input. If not, the sum of the sticky notes is what the team represents. Tip! Focus on one subject at a time. When every member has explained their input, only then move to the next topic. 6. Identify common themes When clustering the sticky notes per topic. Overarching themes may arise. This is great, but should not be forced. Don't try to be too practical here as a facilitator. Tip! Being too practical is dangerous, you might overrule someone’s personal input. Challenge all members to be explicit. No buzzwords. If it's unclear it will not serve the team. 7. Team goals Now that everything is filled in an everybody recognizes themselves as an acknowledged and valued team member, let's fill in the team goals! The team should discuss and come up with a maximum of 3 goals. Make sure they are not all directly related to their functional goal. 8. Next steps After the session is finished, have all team members sign the team charter canvas. It is their contract amongst each other to make the team successful. Tip! Visualising the finished charter together will make the coherency even bigger, together with the commitment towards the eye-popping end result. Checklist: 1. Take a snapshot picture of your team charter; 2. Make sure every member has it as a reference; 3. In times of trouble: refer to the charter 37 13. Regulating skills Before starting the real discussion, be sure you be clear on four points: 1. The topic 2. The purpose of the meeting 3. The procedure 4. The time you think you need or is available. Abbreviated: be clear on TPPT! Check Check whether the client understands and agrees with the purpose of the meeting. This way your client commits him/herself to this purpose. 38 14. Active Listening (article): Hear What People are Really Saying Listening is one of the most important skills you can have. How well you listen has a major impact on your job effectiveness, and on the quality of your relationships with others. We listen to obtain information We listen to understand We listen for enjoyment We listen to learn Given all this listening we do, you would think we'd be good at it! In fact most of us are not, and research suggests that we remember between 25 percent and 50 percent of what we hear. That means that when you talk to your boss, colleagues, customers or spouse for 10 minutes, they pay attention to less than half of the conversation. This is dismal! Turn it around and it reveals that when you are receiving directions or being presented with information, you aren't hearing the whole message either. You hope the important parts are captured in your 25-50 percent, but what if they're not? Clearly, listening is a skill that we can all benefit from improving. By becoming a better listener, you will improve your productivity, as well as your ability to influence, persuade and negotiate. What's more, you'll avoid conflict and misunderstandings. All of these are necessary for workplace success! Tip: Good communication skills require a high level of self-awareness. By understanding your personal style of communicating, you will go a long way towards creating good and lasting impressions with others. About Active Listening The way to become a better listener is to practice "active listening." This is where you make a conscious effort to hear not only the words that another person is saying but, more importantly, try to understand the complete message being sent. In order to do this you must pay attention to the other person very carefully. You cannot allow yourself to become distracted by whatever else may be going on around you, or by forming counter arguments that you'll make when the other person stops speaking. Nor can you allow yourself to get bored, and lose focus on what the other person is saying. All of these contribute to a lack of listening and understanding. Tip: If you're finding it particularly difficult to concentrate on what someone is saying, try repeating their words mentally as they say them – this will reinforce their message and help you stay focused. To enhance your listening skills, you need to let the other person know that you are listening to what he or she is saying. To understand the importance of this, ask yourself if you've ever been engaged in a conversation when you wondered if the other person was listening to what you were saying. You wonder if your message is getting across, or if it's even worthwhile continuing to speak. It feels like talking to a brick wall and it's something you want to avoid. Acknowledgement can be something as simple as a nod of the head or a simple "uh huh." You aren't necessarily agreeing with the person, you are simply indicating that you are listening. Using body language and other signs to acknowledge you are listening also reminds you to pay attention and not let your mind wander. You should also try to respond to the speaker in a way that will both 39 encourage him or her to continue speaking, so that you can get the information if you need. While nodding and "uh huhing" says you're interested, an occasional question or comment to recap what has been said communicates that you understand the message as well. Becoming an Active Listener There are five key elements of active listening. They all help you ensure that you hear the other person, and that the other person knows you are hearing what they say. 1. Pay Attention Give the speaker your undivided attention, and acknowledge the message. Recognize that non-verbal communication also "speaks" loudly. Look at the speaker directly. Put aside distracting thoughts. Don't mentally prepare a rebuttal! Avoid being distracted by environmental factors. For example, side conversations. "Listen" to the speaker's body language. 2. Show That You're Listening Use your own body language and gestures to convey your attention. Nod occasionally. Smile and use other facial expressions. Note your posture and make sure it is open and inviting. Encourage the speaker to continue with small verbal comments like yes, and uh huh. 3. Provide Feedback Our personal filters, assumptions, judgments, and beliefs can distort what we hear. As a listener, your role is to understand what is being said. This may require you to reflect what is being said and ask questions. Reflect what has been said by paraphrasing. "What I'm hearing is," and "Sounds like you are saying," are great ways to reflect back. Ask questions to clarify certain points. "What do you mean when you say." "Is this what you mean?" Summarize the speaker's comments periodically. Tip: If you find yourself responding emotionally to what someone said, say so, and ask for more information: "I may not be understanding you correctly, and I find myself taking what you said personally. What I thought you just said is XXX; is that what you meant?" 4. Defer Judgment Interrupting is a waste of time. It frustrates the speaker and limits full understanding of the message. Allow the speaker to finish each point before asking questions. Don't interrupt with counter arguments. 5. Respond Appropriately Active listening is a model for respect and understanding. You are gaining information and perspective. You add nothing by attacking the speaker or otherwise putting him or her down. 40 Be candid, open, and honest in your response. Assert your opinions respectfully. Treat the other person in a way that you think he or she would want to be treated. Key Points It takes a lot of concentration and determination to be an active listener. Old habits are hard to break, and if your listening habits are as bad as many people's are, then there's a lot of habit- breaking to do! Be deliberate with your listening and remind yourself frequently that your goal is to truly hear what the other person is saying. Set aside all other thoughts and behaviors and concentrate on the message. Ask questions, reflect, and paraphrase to ensure you understand the message. If you don't, then you'll find that what someone says to you and what you hear can be amazingly different! Start using active listening today to become a better communicator, improve your workplace productivity, and develop better relationships. From: Mind Tools Essential skills for an excellent career http://www.mindtools.com/CommSkll/ActiveListening.htm 41 15. The 12 Blocks to Active Listening Updated: Sep 29, 2019 https://www.youniversetherapy.com/post/the-12-blocks-to-active-listening Communication is central to any type of interaction and relationship. Most relationship problems can be overcome if individuals improve their communication skills, and replace passive, aggressive and passive-aggressive communication with more assertiveness. What we often fail to comprehend is that active and assertive listening is THE most important communication skill. In fact, we usually put more effort in how we can get our point across and become more assertive in what we ask and express, than actually realize the significance of our listening skills. We tend to forget that communication is a mutual process of listening to the other and expressing ourselves. Today our focus will be what prevents us from listening actively and attentively. By recognizing the 12 blocks to listening and realizing when we engage in those, we can subsequently improve our listening skills. This will inevitably bring positive changes in the way we communicate with others. After all, listening does mean not just hearing with our ears, but actively being mindful and attentive of what is being expressed, so that we first understand it fully. You are what you listen to- and this does not only apply to music! The 12 Blocks to Active Listening If you often find yourself in situations that you cannot communicate with someone properly, maybe you are also not listening properly. Of course it is understandable that we cannot always give our full attention to whoever is talking to us- yet understan

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