STS Midterm Reviewer PDF

STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER 🍒 ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ★ There are specific ca...

STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER 🍒 ASSUMPTIONS WHEN USING THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD ★ There are specific causes for events observed in nature. ★ These causes can be identified. ★ There are general rules or principles that Science Technology can be used to describe what happens in nature. Scientia --> KNOWLEDGE ★ An event that occurs repeatedly probably Explains the phenomena we encounter in has the same cause. nature and the univers ★ What one person perceives can also be Used in solving problems perceived by others. || ★ The same fundamental rule of nature apply Through a systematic process = Scientific regardless of where and when they occur. Method Steps in Scientific Method OBSERVATIO ➔ A careful and thoughtful N recognition of an event. ➔ occurs when we use our senses and extension of our senses to record events. Identification ➔ Asking questions. of a Problem ➔ How the questions are asked will Scientific Method determine how you go about The way of getting information or facts answering them. about nature or the universe by forming possible answers and solutions to questions or Conduct ➔ Statement on possible answers problems. hypothesis to a question and explanation or followed by rigorous testing to determine if an observation. the proposed answers or solutions are valid. Testing of ➔ Make additional observations hypothesis Research ➔ Experimentation requires a systematic search of information ➔ Collect pertinent information and continual checking and re-checking to see Gathering and ➔ results (data) can be if previous ideas are still supported by new Analysis of information. quantitative or qualitative Results Freedom and accuracy from bias ➔ type of data to gather and analysis to be performed will depend on the questions and objectives Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 1  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Generate ➔ accept or do not accept a Conclusions hypothesis ➔ when broad consensus exists about an area in science, it is known as a theory or law. Theory ➔ widely accepted plausible generalization about fundamental concepts in science that explains WHY things happen Law ➔ is a uniform or constant fact that describes WHAT happens in nature Basically in easier terms: 1. Observation - ano nakikita mo visually 2. Question - something your curious about what HOW TO INDENTIFY A GOOD HYPOTHESIS you observed ★ LOGICAL 3. Hypothesis - ano sa tingin mo mag-yayari from ★ Has all the relevant information currently your analyzation available 4. Test hypothesis - ttest mo ung hypothesis ★ Allow one to predict future events relating to mo (like above example inoobserve niya kung the question being asked uulan talaga) ★ testable 5. Data - can be quantitative or qualitative 6. Conclusion - Based kung ano lumabas sa nakuha mong data Experiments recreation of an event variables are manipulated with control groups for comparison tries to establish causal relationship controlled environment randomization of experimental units reproducible Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 2 STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER BRANCHES OF SCIENCE Middle Ages: Europe ➔ 5th (fall of the Roman Empire) to 13th century (Renaissance)​ ➔ also called the medieval period or “dark” ages​ ➔ common perception: there was little progress in science during this period Feudalism (feudal system) – social classes​ Agricultural revolution ➔ invention of the heavy plow and 3-field crop rotation​ ➔ food supplies increased​ ➔ population further grew Catholic Church ➔ became the most powerful institution of the middle ages​ ➔ Greek science and the study of nature was sustained by monastic communities​ ➔ the universe was viewed as a great machine whose creation and functioning reflected harmony: proportion and symmetry, these qualities were imparted through design by its Creator​ ➔ scholars of this period conceived their Christian God as a Great Geometer whose compass served as the “tool of creation”​ ➔ libraries and schools​ were constructed​ ➔ influenced the founding of the first European universities from cathedral schools​ Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 3  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER exchange of culture and scientific knwoledge between the West and the East Eto ung mga libraries and schools na constructed Marco Polo University of Bologna (1088) Venetian merchant who travelled to China​ University of Oxford (1096) ➔ his Travels became one of the basis for University of Salamanca (1134) creating maps of the world and describing University of Cambridge (1209) the East to Europeans​ Contribution of the Monks​ ➔ Agriculture: introduced new techniques in Middle Ages: Medicine land cultivation, animal breeding, wine making​ ➔ Preservation of classical work: copied manuscripts in scriptoria and created Black Death/Bubonic Plague (1346-1353) libraries ➔ caused by Yersenia pestis, carried by flea-infested rodents​ Bede the Venerable (“San Beda“)​ ➔ possibly originating from Asia​ English monk, writer, scholar​ ➔ inflammation of the lymph nodes (bubo)​ ➔ wrote “The Ecclesiastical History of the ➔ approx. 60% of the​population of Europe died​ English People” and “The Reckoning of ➔ quarantine (quarantena) – 40- day isolation of Time” (De temporum ratione) – a manual of ships and people to prevent disease computus (use of astronomy to determine the transmission date of Easter) Middle Ages: Crusades St. Albert the Great (Albertus Magnus)​ patron saint of scientists​ military expeditions during the 10th to 12th ➔ wrote on various topics such as botany, centuries authorized by the Catholic Church zoology, astronomy, mineralogy, alchemy, to recapture the Holy Land (regular law, philosophy crusades)​ crusaders and pilgrims were exposed to Architecture​ Islamic literature, science and technology ➔ cathedrals and monasteries​ ➔ Romanesque and Gothic style Middle Ages: Silk Road and Islamic Science Middle Ages: Silk Road and Maritime Routes Islamic science flourished during the middle ages​ ➔ the Silk road was an ancient trade routes Islamic scholars re-introduced scientific which linked the East (China, Persia, India) to knowledge back to​the west the West (Europe)​ ➔ both land and maritime routes were essential factors for the successful trading, as well as Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 4  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Middle Ages: Science in Ancient China Middle Ages: Islamic Medicine used science even before the middle ages​ Greco-Roman medicine and Galen’s texts were invented the paper, block printing, gun translated into Arabic​ powder, compass​ used science even before the middle ages​ invented the paper, block printing, gun Al-Razi (Rhazes) powder, compass used scientific approach in his research and created medicines PAPER Ibn Sina (Avicenna) studied anatomy and compiled the Canon of Medicine Additional Information: some of the best physicians were Muslims and even Jews, and taught in the medical schools (oldest in Europe) of Universities of Montpellier and Salerno​ Middle Ages: Islamic Mathematics and Astrology Astrological​ interest in astronomy BLOCK PRINTING Muslims determined latitude and the direction to Mecca other contributions: astrolabe (used for determining the positions of the stars and Sun, navigation, time keeping), celestial globe (plots the position of stars and constellations), and constructed observatories​ Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 5  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER more of an intellectual and cultural movement rather than a particular time period in history GUN POWDER Can be referred to as intellectual Revolutions Humanism​ intellectual movement popularized by Francesco Petrarca (Petrach) and Giovanni Boccaccio in Italy​ rediscovery of Greek and Roman classics and culture​ man is the center of his own universe; he should embrace his own achievements in arts, COMPASS (Lodstone) literature, and science the Medici family were patrons of the arts and sciences​ Johannes Gutenberg​ Chinese Medicine​ German goldsmith and inventor​ used herbs to produce medicine​ invented the printing press acupuncture – inserts needles into the skin to relieve pain and treat diseases Leonardo Da Vinci​ Italian artist and inventor​ Middle Ages: Science in Ancient China designed flying machines (in Codex of the Flight of Birds) dissected corpses and drew anatomical structures (muscles, bones, reproductive Age of enlightenment organs)​ 1400 - 1600 transformed map making from art to science some scholars argue that it started more (cartography) earlier, and ended much later, and that is Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 6  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Cartography Galileo Galilei​ René Descartes​ Italian astronomer​ French mathematician and philosopher​ made improvements of the telescope​ combined mathematics and​ discovered the moons of Jupiter, phases of logic with philosophy​ Venus, and described the surface of the Moon​ used algebraic concepts to explain studied gravity, inertia, free-fall and geometrical problems​ projectile motion, among others famous for the dictum cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am) cogito, ergo sum —> first step in demonstrating the attainability of knowledge​ Francis Bacon​ English philosopher​ wrote Novum Organum​ Andreas Vesalius​ known for the aphorism: scientia potentia Flemish physician​ est (knowledge is power) Wrote De Humani Corporis Fabrica Libri Septem​ made anatomical observations based on human dissections Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 7  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Architecture adopted distinguishing features of Roman architecture​(symmetry and classical order) ➔ transformation from primarily rural, agrarian societies​ ➔ into urban and industrialized ones​ ➔ started in Europe (England) and America ➔ utilization of machines to make work more efficient​ Calendar​ ➔ transcontinental railroad, cotton gin, over a thousand years after it was introduced, the electricity by​burning fossil fuel Julian calendar had drifted and was out of sync with ➔ science and technology has become more the equinoxes and solstices (Easter) which was interdisciplinary​ occurring later and later in the year Age of Exploration​ Ferdinand Magellan – 1st European to cross the Pacific Ocean to reach the Spice Islands Christopher Columbus – led and expedition to the​ New World (Americas) Europeans brought diseases (smallpox, influenza)​ Other significant contributions:​ ➔ Galileo discovered the pendulum​ ➔ invention of the mechanical clock and portable Biological and Biomedical Sciences​ watch​ improvement in the diagnosis and treatment ➔ invention of the eyeglasses of diseases improvement in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases​ Modern Period Edward Jenner developed vaccination​ Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, a form of​antibiotic Industrial Revolution DNA sequencing Genetically modified organism (GMO)​ Gene therapy​ Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 8  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Genetics, Biotechnology, Molecular Biology​ Astronomy the branch of science that deals with celestial objects, space, and the physical universe as a whole. satellite technology for telecommunications and geospatial analysis Space Science and Technology​ space race and exploration​ an offshoot of the US-Soviet Union Cold War space race and exploration​ Hubble Space Telescope a large telescope in space. Helped pin down the age for the universe now known to be 13.8 billion years, roughly three times the age of Earth. Helped Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 9  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER determine the rate at which the universe is expanding. Frontier Science​ What’s next for science and technology?​ Where do we go from here? International Space Station (ISS)​ a large spacecraft in orbit around Earth. It serves as a home where crews of astronauts and cosmonauts live Elon Musk and Space Exploration Technologies Corporation (SpaceX) Intellectual Revolutions a space transportation and aerospace manufacturer founded in 2002 by Elon Musk. Musk is also the CEO ➔ referred to as scientific revolutions of electric car maker Tesla. ➔ series of events that led to the emergence of modern science ➔ the progress of scientific thinking across critical periods of history ➔ paradigm shift ➔ a two-way process of sweeping away the old and establishing the new ➔ understanding how the universe works Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 10  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER ➔ challenged long-held views about nature and the universe Copernican Revolutions ➔ refers to the 16th century paradigm shift ➔ named after Nicolaus Copernicus ➔ served as a catalyst to sway scientific thinking away from age-long views about the position of the Earth ➔ marks the beginning of modern astronomy Nicolaus Copernicus Comparison of Geocentric and Heliocentric Polish mathematician and astronomer Models wrote De revolutionibus orbium coelestium: highlighted his heliocentric theory Darwinian Revolutions Nicolaus Copernicus ➔ named after Charles Darwin ➔ states that traits are manifested on offsprings Ptolemaic Geocentric System that are more fit and well-suited to the challenges of survival and reproduction ➔ development of organisms and the origin of unique forms of life and humanity could be rationalized by a lawful system or an orderly process of change Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 11  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Sigmund Freud Tripartite Account of the Mind’s Structure Part of a radically new conceptual and therapeutic Charles Darwin (1809-1882) frame of reference for the understanding of human credited for stirring another important psychological development and the treatment of intellectual revolution in the mid 19th century abnormal mental conditions his book, On the Origin of Species (1859), Parts began a revolution that brought humanity to ID a new era of intellectual discovery ego gathered evidence pointing to what is known superego as natural selection: evolutionary process by which organisms inherit, develop, and adapt traits that favor survival and reproduction Freudian Revolutions ➔ named after Sigmund Freud ➔ theory that the mind is a complex energy-system: the structural investigation of Freud’s Structure of the Human Psyche which is the proper province of psychology ID (Instincts) - primitive and ➔ explanation of how psychoanalysis can be a instinctual part clinical method in treating some mental of the mind disorders - contains sexual and aggressive Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) drives and articulated and refined the concepts of the hidden unconscious, infantile sexuality, and memories repression father of psychoanalysis: study explaining EGO (Reality) - operates as a human behavior, how various conscious and moral unconscious factors can influence behavior conscience and emotions SUPEREGO (Morality) - realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 12  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER establishment and development of institutions and the and organizations that promote communal super-ego activities - Braye and Evans process which leads to the formation of They interact to form a whole, and each part countries - Alesina and Reich makes a relative contribution to an individual’s process of building a social community within behavior. a nation-state - Badie TAKE NOTE Prehistory ★ These 3 theories transformed and molded societies and beliefs ★ are evidences of science and technology’s ➔ bones of Homo luzonensis: heorized to have link to humanity lived some 50,000 to 80,000 years ago. found in Callao Cave, Penablanca, Cagayan, Luzon Island Science, Technology, and Nation Building Nation a group of people who see themselves as a cohesive and coherent unit based on history or culture Pre-colonial Period socially constructed units, not given by nature existence, definition, and members can ➔ people already settled in some of the islands change dramatically based on circumstances of what isnow known as the Philippines also called as imagined communities because ➔ Filipinos had their own system of alphabet - they are bound together by notions of unity Baybayin concept and practice of a nation work to ➔ using of plants and herbs as medicine establish who belongs and who does not ➔ system of farming and animal-raising (e.g., states ≠ nations rice terraces in the Cordilleras) ➔ were different modes of land and maritime State transportation (e.g., balangay) independent, sovereign government exercising control over a certain spatially Angono Petroglyphs (3000 BC) defined and bounded area borders are usually clearly defined and internationally recognized by other states TAKE NOTE ★ not every nation has a state: some states may contain all or parts of multiple nations Nation Building Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 13  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Laguna Copper Plate Inscriptions (900 CE) Fr. Victor Badillo, SJ Colonial Period Spanish Period American Period means of construction and engineering: walls, modernized almost all aspects of life in the roads, bridges and other infrastructures Philippines Filipinos flew to Europe for education established the Bureau of Science: to nurture health and educational systems: hospitals and development in the field of science and schools technology scientific activities were conducted by friars several Filipinos (pencionados) were sent to Research institutions were also built (e.g. the US to study science and engineering Observatorio Meteorologica de Manila/Manila public school system was introduced Observatory, 1865) established in 1901, Bureau of Government Laboratories: composed of biological and chemical laboratories, science library, and Serum Laboratory of the Board of Health Fr. Federico Faura, SJ focused in studying tropical diseases later reorganized into the Bureau of Science in 1905 National Research Council of the Philippines: promote a scientific and technological culture to all sectors of society focused on agriculture, medicine, pharmacy, food-processing and forestry Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 14  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Technology in the Philippines Post-Colonial Period Science Act of 1958 ➔ Philippines under different administrations, continued to pursue programs in science and technology Timeline in Post-Colonial 1947 Bureau of Science was transformed into the Institute of Science 1951 transformed into Institute of Science and Technology 1958 Congress passed a law establishing the National Other Legislations Science Development Board (NSDB) 1964 Philippine Science High School (PSHS) was established Marcos Regime Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) was mandated to promote science courses in public high schools 1982 NSDB revamped as the National Science and Technology Authority (NSTA) 1989 NSTA elevated into cabinet level as the Department of Science and TechnologY Legal Basis for Promoting Science and Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 15  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Article XIV | Section 10 Science and technology are essential for national development and progress. The State shall give priority to research and development, invention, innovation, and their utilization; and to science and technology education, training, and services. It shall support indigenous, appropriate, and self-reliant scientific and technological capabilities, and their application to the country’s productive systems and national life. Article XIV | Section 11 The Congress may provide for incentives, including tax deductions, to encourage private participation in programs of basic and applied scientific research. Scholarships, grants-in-aid, or other forms of incentives shall be provided to deserving science students, researchers, scientists, inventors, technologists, and specially gifted citizens. Article XIV | Section 12 The State shall regulate the transfer and promote the adaptation of technology from all sources for the national benefit. It shall encourage the widest 1987 Philippine Constitution participation of private groups, local governments, and community-based organizations in the Arcticle II | Section 17 generation and utilization of science and technology. The State shall give priority to education, science and technology, arts, culture, and sports to foster Article XIV | Section 13 patriotism and nationalism, accelerate social The State shall protect and secure the exclusive progress, and promote total human liberation and rights of scientists, inventors, artists, and other gifted development. Legal Basis for Promoting Science and citizens to their intellectual property and creations, Technology in the Philippines particularly when beneficial to the people, for such period as may be provided by law. Article XII | Section 14 The sustained development of a reservoir of national Department of Science and Technology (DOST) talents consisting of Filipino scientists, entrepreneurs, professionals, managers, high-level technical manpower and skilled workers and craftsmen in all Mandate fields shall be promoted by the State. The State shall Executive Order No. 128 mandates the Department to encourage appropriate technology and regulate its “provide central direction, leadership and transfer for the national benefit. Legal Basis for coordination of scientific and technological efforts Promoting Science and Technology in the Philippines and ensure that the results therefrom are geared and utilized in areas of maximum economic and social benefits for the people” Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 16  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Mission DOST Programs To direct, lead, and coordinate the country’s scientific and technological efforts geared towards maximum economic and social benefits for the people. Science for Change Program (S4CP) Aims to accelerate STI in the country in order to Long-term vision keep up with the developments in our time wherein The DOST is the “provider of world-class scientific, technology and innovation are game changers. technological and innovative solutions that will lead to higher productivity and better quality of life.” NICER Program capacitates Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in Intermediate Vision the regions to make significant improvement in DOST as a leading ASEAN Science, Technology and regional research by integrating its development Innovation Hub by 2022. needs with the existing R&D capabilities and resources. R&D Leadership (RDLead) Program It provides the mechanism to bring in experts and highly skilled professionals with strong leadership, management and innovative policy-making proficiencies to be in charge of strengthening the research capabilities of the HEIs, National Government Agencies (NGAs) and Research Development Institutions (RDIs) in the regions. Collaborative Research and Development to Leverage Philippine Economy (CRADLE) Program - fosters collaboration between academe and SEC. RENATO U. SOLIDUM JR local companies to improve competitiveness and catalyze innovation. Sectoral Research Scientific & Advisory - facilitates the smooth transition of new Planning and Technological Bodies technologies from universities and research Councils Development Service and development institutes (RDI) to industries Institutes Institutes Business Innovation through S&T (BIST) for -PCAARRD -ASTI -ICTO -NAST Industry Program -PCHRD -FNRI -PAGASA -NRCP Aims to level-up the innovation capacity of the -PCIEERD -FPRDI -PHIVOLCS Philippine Industrial Sector through R&D by helping -ITDI -PSHS private companies and industries acquire novel and -MIRDC -SEI strategic technologies. -PNRI -STII -PTRI -TAPI Balik Scientist Program (BSP) Filipino scientists, technologists, and experts are encouraged to return to the country and share their expertise. aims to: 1. Reverse the effect of the brain drain 2. Strengthen S & T capabilities 3. Accelerate flow of technologies Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 17  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER 4. Promote sharing of knowledge To link with like-minded institutions and individuals in promoting scientific National Academy of Science and Technology achievement in the Philippines and abroad. (NAST) To promote a strong science culture in Philippine society. Mandate To recognize outstanding achievements in Members Science and Technology as well as provide Academicians and Corresponding Members meaningful incentives to those engaged in Honorary Members Scientific and Technological Researches (Presidential Decree 1003-A) To advise the President and the Cabinet on matters related to Science and Technology (Executive Order No. 818) To engage in projects and programs designed to recognize outstanding achievements in science and to promote scientific productivity (Executive Order No. 818). To embark on programs traditionally and internationally expected of an academy of science (Executive Order No. 818). To manage, operate and maintain the Philippine Science Heritage Center (Republic Academicians Act 9107) by peer recognition and carries with it the title of “Academician” Vision for the Country resident Filipino scientists elected as "A Progressive Philippines Anchored on Science" Academicians who have made exemplary contributions to science and technology and Vision for NAST have advanced its cause in the Philippines. "NAST, as an academy of recognized experts, serves as principal adviser to the nation on science, Corresponding Members technology, and innovation contributing to national conferred on non-resident Filipino scientists development who have made exemplary contributions to the advancement of science and technology Mission and must have continuing connections and To recognize exemplary science and contributions to Philippine science technology achievements among the young they should regularly come to the Philippines and among peers. to practice their field of expertise To encourage individual Academy members Filipino citizenship and residency are waived to continue their own scholarly pursuits as long as the three qualifications are met thereby making the Academy the principal reservoir of scientific and technological Order of the National Scientist expertise in the nation. PD 1003 - intended to create a body to To provide independent and science-based recognize outstanding achievements in advice on problems facing the nation and the science and technology as well as provide world. meaningful incentives to those engaged in scientific and technological research Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 18  STS MIDTERM REVIEWER ‧₊˚ ⋅ 1ST SEMESTER Order of National Scientist - highest honor given by the President of the Republic of the Philippines to a Filipino man or woman of science in the Philippines who has made significant contributions in one of the different fields of science and technology ORDER OF NATIONAL SCIENTISTS POSSIBLE QUESTION FOR MIDTERMS: How can Science and Technology help achieve the goal and objectives of the PDP 2023-2028? Goodluck friends ദ്ദി(˵ ̀ ᴗ - ˵ ) ✧ PAGE 19