Notes on a Southern Urban Practice PDF

Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti "Notes on a Southern Urban Practice" by Gautam Bhan Abstract This essay aligns with Southern urban theorists, arguing that the emerging body of "theory from the South" must be simultaneously tied to the production of theories of practice. Based on the experiences of Indian cities, the essay introduces three approaches/strategies of Southern practices: 1. Squatting: Viewed not just as a form of subaltern urbanization but also as a state practice. 2. Repair: Contrasted with construction, building, and upgrading. 3. Consolidation: Focused on strengthening existing services and infrastructure rather than creating a singular, universal network. The essay also introduces characteristics that deﬁne "Southern" practice and urges the expansion of a vocabulary to describe these Southern urban practices more eNectively. Key words Global South: With globalization, in 1980, the Willy Brandt Commission, led by the German Chancellor, proposed economic reparations from the Global North to historically colonized and poor Global South to address global inequalities. Among their initiatives were scholarships for students from the Global South to study in the North and the deployment of global development corporations to work in the South. Southern Theory: It is important to also study cities in the Global South, poor cities. If we only study cities of the Western world we won’t understand how global inequality works and how it inﬂuences planning and architecture. Limiting our study to aNluent cities can obscure the intricate processes of urbanization and global uneven development. Introduction Philip Harrison reﬂects on his move from academia to working in Johannesburg, noting that while planning theory improved his thinking, it didn't provide practical guidance. This issue isn't unique to planning but aNects anyone trying to address real-world urban challenges, from activists to everyday citizens. The essay explores three key disconnects between theory and practice: 1. Unrooted Theory: When theory is too abstract to apply to real situations, recent work on Southern urban theory presents this issue. 2. Narrow View of Practice: Restricting "practice" to formal roles, like planners and activists, which limits them (a planner makes plans and does not need to know politics, …). 3. Segmentation: Some well-known facts, known as "open secrets," are often left out of oNicial rules and practices because they may not ﬁt neatly into established disciplinary boundaries or 1 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti because they challenge dominant ideas or practices, even though they're widely acknowledged as true. The author emphasizes the importance of bridging the gap between theory and practice in urban contexts, particularly in the Global South. They highlight challenges in applying theoretical knowledge to real-world situations and propose borrowing from both theory and practice to address these issues. By introducing new terms like squat, repair, and consolidate, the author aims to develop a shared theoretical framework (a set of concepts, principles, and approaches that are collectively agreed upon and utilized by researcher) for Southern urban practice. On Vocabularies Bhan explains that creating a vocabulary is a form of theory-building that helps make diverse realities visible and relevant. A vocabulary is a collection of words used to describe and understand diNerent realities. In this context, "vocabularies" refer to sets of terms and concepts used to describe and understand diNerent aspects of urban practice and theory. These vocabularies help to: Name and Describe Realities: They provide speciﬁc words and phrases to articulate and make sense of various urban phenomena and issues. Expand Understanding: By introducing new terms or redeﬁning existing ones, vocabularies broaden our ability to think about and address complex urban challenges. It's about naming things and expanding our language to make complex ideas clearer. Map Knowledge: Vocabularies organize and structure diNerent areas of knowledge, highlighting relationships and hierarchies within them. Political Tool: They can be used to emphasize particular issues, places, and forms of knowledge, making them more visible and relevant. Dynamic and Contextual: Vocabularies evolve over time and are tailored to speciﬁc places and times, reﬂecting the unique circumstances and needs of diNerent urban environments. Vocabularies are essential for developing a deeper and more nuanced understanding of urban practice, especially in diverse and complex settings like those found in the Global South. On “Southernness” The concept of "Southernness" is central to the essay, where Bhan discusses the importance of place in shaping urban thought. Over the past decade, scholars of "Southern urban theory" have emphasized the importance of place in shaping urban thought, challenging the idea that urban theory is universal and placeless. Southern urban theory challenges the idea that urban theory is placeless and universally applicable. 2 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti They argue that traditional urban theory has often ignored the unique experiences of cities in the Global South, treating them merely as deviations from a supposed norm that stems from the analysis of wealthy and large cities form the West. This oversight has two critical consequences: 1. It limits our understanding of everyday realities in many parts of the world. 2. It hinders the development of concepts and practices that originate from these unique contexts. Recent studies have tried to address this by focusing on the experiences of cities like Johannesburg, Lagos, Cairo, Mumbai, and Jakarta, arguing that urban theory must also consider the speciﬁcities of these places. Practical development of theories The author of this essay supports this perspective but also challenges it, advocating for a focus on practical applications and the development of theories that are rooted in speciﬁc empirical (real-world) contexts, particularly in Indian cities. The need for a vocabulary The essay introduces three terms that reﬂect key urban issues in these cities, emphasizing the need for a vocabulary that can address the unique challenges and dynamics of urbanism in the Global South. Both connected and grounded in reality By grounding these terms in the speciﬁc experiences of Indian cities, the author aims to create a framework that acknowledges both the theoretical and practical aspects of Southern urbanism. This approach highlights the importance of understanding and addressing the distinct realities and vulnerabilities of cities in the Global South. The Terms: Squat, Repair, and Consolidate Bhan introduces three key terms to build a vocabulary for Southern urban practice: 1. Squat Squatting involves occupying and building on land or in structures without legal title. It's a common way people in many Southern cities, including those in India, live due to housing precarity. Squatting is often seen as a response to exclusion and a means of enduring and transforming urban spaces. o Instead of evicting or redeveloping these areas, in-site upgrading has become a recognized practice. For example: the Aam Aadmi Party in New Delhi set up Mohalla clinics on sidewalks to provide public health services, eNectively "squatting" on municipal land to meet urgent healthcare needs. 3 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti This highlights squatting as a practice that can be used by governments for public good, not just by marginalized communities. A mohalla clinic in Delhi, squatting on a pubblic side walk 2. Repair: In Indian cities, many residents build their homes incrementally while living in them, a process akin to repair. This involves continuous, small-scale improvements rather than large-scale construction. Repair emphasizes restoring functionality quickly using accessible materials and community knowledge. This practice is crucial for housing policy, suggesting a shift from constructing new homes to improving existing ones. For example: the Indian government's policy of "Housing for All" could beneﬁt from focusing on repairing and upgrading current homes rather than solely building new ones. 3. Consolidate: Consolidation refers to integrating various methods of urban service delivery, rather than relying solely on traditional, centralized networks. In Southern cities, diverse systems like soak pits, septic tanks, and pit latrines are more common than piped sewers. 4 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti ENective governance and regulatory frameworks are needed to manage these systems. For example: in Bengaluru, dry waste collection centres managed by informal waste pickers demonstrate successful consolidation by combining municipal support with community-driven initiatives. This approach could be extended to other urban services like sanitation. By focusing on squatting, repair, and consolidation, urban theory and practice can better address the speciﬁc needs and realities of Southern cities. Conclusion Bhan concludes by urging further development of Southern urban theory and practice, stressing the ongoing need for a dynamic vocabulary that can mobilize new modes of practice tailored to the distinctive challenges of Southern urban contexts. The essay establishes a theoretical framework based on three diNerent approaches/methods of practice: squat, repair, and consolidate. These modes (approaches/methods of practice) collectively underscore several key characteristics, as detailed in four main observations: 1. Each practice is deeply embedded in the speciﬁc spatial, historical, and socio-political context of its urban environment. These practices emerge due to the unique conditions of a particular urbanism and may evolve or disappear over time as these conditions change. 5 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti 2. These practices operate within contexts of uncertainty, challenging the conventional notion of evidence-based policymaking. They recognize that systems and people do not always act predictably and that rules are often unstable. 3. The success and impact of these practices focusses on short-term, pragmatic improvements rather than long-term solutions. They often result in signiﬁcant structural changes through sustained, localized eNorts. 4. These practices emphasize the need for constant action and movement, they value pragmatic, feasible solutions over idealized technical approaches. These observations highlight the incremental, uncertain, temporally ﬂuid, and speculative nature of Southern urban practices. The essay calls for expanding this vocabulary by incorporating diverse terms and perspectives, acknowledging the evolving development within the global South. It emphasizes the importance of focusing on modes (approaches/methods) of practice rather than allowing for innovative and unconventional approaches to urban challenges. The concluding note urges further exploration and articulation of Southern urban practices, advocating for a dynamic and evolving framework that responds to the transforming urban landscapes and challenges dominant and deep-rooted knowledge and practices. Key Themes 1. Theory-Practice Disconnect: The need to bridge the gap between theoretical frameworks and practical applications in urban studies. 2. Vocabulary as Theory-Building: The role of vocabulary in making diverse urban realities comprehensible and in challenging conventional (Western) knowledge. 3. Southern Urban Theory: The importance of place-based urban theory that acknowledges the unique contexts and challenges of Southern cities. 4. Terms of Southern Practice: Introduction of terms like squat, repair, and consolidate to reﬂect the rather practical then thoracal nature of urban practices in Southern cities. 5. Dynamic and Located Knowledge: Emphasis on the evolving nature of urban vocabularies that must adapt to changing urban landscapes, realities, and evolving times. 6 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti Henry Lefebvre – From the city to urban society Urban society: society that results from a process of complete urbanization and industrialization that dominates and consumes agricultural production. Industrialization: process of domination that absorbs agricultural production In his text, Lefebvre puts forward the following hypothesis: The complete urbanization of society. Hypothesis: society has been completely urbanized Based on an epistemological and methodological approach (a speciﬁc way of thinking about and studying knowledge) o The believe that knowledge isn't just a copy or imitation of something real. o It's also not created just to ﬁt a theory that already exists about that thing. The object is included in the hypothesis (which is not ﬁctional) o Even though this "object" might not be based on actual facts we can observe, it isn't made up. We can imagine the virtual object (urban society); as something that could exist and study how it might grow and develop through practical activities. While this theory needs to be proven true, there are plenty of arguments and evidence to support it, ranging from very simple to very complex. Example: Agricultural production Lost all its autonomy. Changed into a form of industrial production. Economic growth and industrialization have become self-legitimating extending their eKects to entire regions, nations, and continents. Self-legitimating: Economic growth and industrialization are now widely accepted and considered necessary. They don't need external validation because their beneﬁts are seen as self-evident. Result: peasant life has been transformed and integrated in the industrial production and consumption. As the population grows, so does the urban fabric, and the residue of agrarian life is corroded. Agricultural towns are created. While large cities exploded, small and midsize cities were created and became dependent and partial colonies of the metropolis. 1 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti Urban fabric: deﬁne all manifestations of the dominance of the city over the country (also highways, supermarkets…) Agricultural town: areas untouched by the urban fabric, islands of “farm poverty” The hypothesis is in this way a point both of arrival for existing knowledge, and of departure for new studies: complete urbanization. o No other hypothesis can cover the entire range of problem, postindustrial or leisure society, are insuKicient because they only address part of the complex issues we face. o The concept of "urban society" is crucial because other hypotheses fall short in addressing the complexities of modern society. They criticize ideas like postindustrial or leisure society as incomplete or overly simplistic. Instead, they propose "urban society" as a theoretical framework that goes beyond. Crucial aspects of urbanism: Absence of epistemology Traditionally, people have seen urbanism as a social activity with a scientiﬁc and technical side. This means that scholars have tried to study urbanism using scientiﬁc methods. However, there's been a lack of a comprehensive urban epistemology, which is the theory of how knowledge about urbanism is acquired and validated. This is important because it indicates that the institutional (structure/organizations) and ideological parts of urbanism are more signiﬁcant than its scientiﬁc aspects. Essentially, urbanism today doesn't prioritize understanding its basic principles. Ideology: Urbanism isn't just about city planning; it's also shaped by institutional and ideological inﬂuences. People critique urbanism from both political sides. Right-wing critics usually want to preserve traditional values and support free-market ideas, promoting private businesses and capitalism. On the other hand, left-wing critics, which are less acknowledged, envision new urban possibilities outside current social and economic structures. Their criticism is utopian, meaning they dream of a better urban future while still being aware of the current reality. The Urban Phenomenon: 0% ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100% Pure Nature Complete urbanization process The axis run from absence of urbanization to the completion of this process. o Both Spatial: because it extends through space modifying it. o And Temporal: because the process develops over time. Urban Phenomenon Signposts: 0% ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 100% Political city Mercantile city Industrial city Critical zone Transition from 2 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti agrarian to urban | Implosion-Explosion 0% First human groups (gatherers, ﬁshers, hunters…) that marked out and named space. The history of the city has followed the one of the villages (made of this human groups), that has slowly created an urban reality. 0-25% The Political City accompanies or closely follows the establishment of organized social life, agriculture, and the village. Was populated by priests, warriors, “nobles”, artisans, workers, military leaders, administrator, and scribes. Writing is fundamental for the political city: Documents, Laws, Inventions, Tax Collection The Political City administers, protects, and exploits territory, it manages large-scale agricultural projects (such as: drainage, irrigation, dams, clearing of land). Ownership of the land becomes the right of a monarch, the symbol of order and action. Places of exchange and trade (caravans, fairgrounds) are excluded, left outside the political city. Exchange and trade, which are essential to the survival of life, bring wealth and movement. The political city resists, it knows, that it is threatened by markets, merchandise, and traders, by their form of ownership, money, and wealth. The process of integration of markets and merchandise in the city will last for centuries and present many class struggles against the overlords (owners and rulers of the land). The Marketplace became central/essential for the West at the end of the Middle Ages, everything was around it: Church, Town Hall. Architecture followed and translated the new conception of the city. The urban space becomes the meeting place for goods, people, and exchange. Example Southwest France: In the 14th century, there was a belief that simply establishing markets around a central square would stimulate the growth of goods and attract buyers. As a result, both the nobility and the bourgeoisie constructed merchant cities in practically desert areas. These cities, located in the French southwest were ultimately unsuccessful. This marked a transition where the merchant city replaced the political city. 25-50% Merchant cities (14th century in western Europe). Commercial exchange became central urban function inﬂuencing both: urban (layout) and architectural(buildings) structures. The urban space took on a new structure, emphasizing interaction and organization. Market towns and suburbs became increasingly signiﬁcant, leading to conﬂicts with political authorities over inﬂuence, prestige, and space. To resolve these conﬂicts, a compromise was necessary, the urban units (Distinct zones in urban areas). 3 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti Transition from agrarian to urban => Reversal of heterotopy between countryside and city: At a pivotal moment in European history, a signiﬁcant but unnoticed shift occurred: the city became central to society, overtaking the countryside in importance. Previously, the countryside, with its land and agricultural wealth, was dominant, while the town was seen as distinct and secondary, surrounded by walls and suburban areas. However, this relationship reversed, changing the entire social landscape. From this moment on: The countryside was once the focal point of wealth and power, but the city gradually became more important. People started to see the city not as an isolated or strange place but as a central part of society, equal to the countryside. Villagers began producing goods for the city markets rather than for feudal lords, recognizing that their path to freedom was the urban economy. Society’s perception shifted from seeing themselves as part of nature to seeing the urban environment as a crucial mediator between their homes and the world. The state integrated both city and countryside into its domain, utilizing their rivalry to strengthen its control, though its power remained hidden to people at the time. This period saw the rebirth of rational thought and reason. The city became a center of writing, knowledge, and power, distinguishing urban sophistication from rural simplicity. During the 16th and 17th centuries, city maps began to appear, blending artistic vision with scientiﬁc accuracy. These maps represented the city in a new perspective, emphasizing both knowledge and power. The emergence of city maps symbolized the new urban identity, combining art and science, and reﬂecting a comprehensive view of the city as a whole. 50-75% Industrial city. Industry developed near sources of energy, raw materials… and with the time started moving towards the city looking for capital and capitalists, market, and an abundant supply of low-cost labor. It could locate itself anywhere if there was an economical advantage doing so. Similarly to how the political city resisted merchants, exchange and money the industrial city needed to defend itself from being taken over by nascent industry, capital and industrial capital by establishing relationships. Implosion-Explosion: Non-city and the anti-city elements conquered the city, penetrating it, breaking it apart, bringing to the urbanization of society: the growth of the urban fabric and the complete subordination of the agrarian to the urban. As cities and urbanity changed, they lost their natural and uplifting feel and became oppressive, ﬁlled with urban signs and signals. Implosion: concentration of urban reality (people, activities, objects, thoughts…). Explosion: projection of numerous disjunct fragments into space (peripheries, suburbs, vacation homes…). The challenges faced by cities are now a global issue, reﬂecting the realities of urban life worldwide. 4 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti Critical phase The critical phase refers to a pivotal period in societal development, particularly in the context of urbanization. One key aspect is the occurrence of a second transition: Industrialization, previously dominant, becomes a dominated reality only during times of profound crisis. This leads to signiﬁcant confusion, where past and future possibilities become intertwined. The onset of urban society and urbanization depends on societal characteristics during industrialization, such as economic growth or automation. The terms "urban" or "urban society" are preferred over "city" because they represent a broader, more complex understanding. Urban society is not a completed reality but a virtuality, a goal toward which society moves. Theoretical knowledge must not treat this goal as an abstraction but understand it as an ongoing social practice. The urban problematic involves understanding how urban structures are transformed and will develop in the future. Conventional approaches to future research are inadequate since they rely on extrapolating from existing facts, the urban problematic requires a holistic approach. This phase has often been seen as a "black box" we know what goes in and sometimes we see what come out, yet its inner workings are not fully understood. However, projections and predictions have a basis only in partial sciences, but here an objective search for totality is pursued. To show how deep the crisis goes, how great the uncertainty and dismay are in the critical phase: Comparison: Some arguments for and against the road, for and against the monument. 5 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti Pro and Cons of Streets and Monuments For the Street Against the Streets Place of encounter, vital for social life, where Superﬁcial encounters, lacking genuine. people interact and exchange ideas. connection. Acts as a stage where life unfolds, with people Facilitates only the display of goods, turning both spectators and actors. people into mere spectators. Symbolizes movement and vitality, essential for Becomes a space dominated by consumerism, city life. regulating time and behavior. Source of disorder, but within this disorder, Organizes time according to consumerist higher order emerges. demands, subjugating individuals. Site of group manifestation and self-expression, Can be a site of oppression, controlled by essential for democratic processes. authorities and commercial interests. Often the birthplace of revolutions and social Can be restricted by authorities, limiting movements. freedom of assembly and expression. Center of communication and exchange, where Can become a tool of colonization through ideas are shared and debated. advertising and commercialization. 6 Soziologie HS23/FS24 Roberto Innocenti For the Monument Against the Monument Represents a focal point for collective life and Often repressive, serving the interests of societal values. powerful institutions. Provides a space for gathering and collective Often erected to glorify conquerors and action. oppressors. Transcends functions and cultures, embodying Can overshadow practical needs, leading to ethical and aesthetic power. neglect of housing and basic infrastructure. Projects a worldview onto the ground, shaping Sometimes loses relevance over time, becoming societal order and aspirations. mere symbols of past glory. OKers a sense of transcendence and utopian Can be manipulated by authorities to impose ideals. ideologies and suppress dissent. Represents ideals of duty, power, knowledge, Can be seen as elitist or authoritarian, imposing and hope. values on society. 7 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Journeys through planetary urbanization: Decentring perspectives on the urban Abstract: In recent years, there's been a lot of discussion about planetary urbanization. To understand today's urban world, we need to rethink our concepts of what "urban" means. Essentially, we are encouraged to look at urbanization from a new, broader, and less central perspective. This article aims to clarify some key questions about planetary urbanization. It examines the inﬂuence of urbanization on a global scale and looks at the role of theory in urban practice and research. The article also discusses the balance between abstract ideas and real-world examples in social theory, the importance of recognizing diJerences in urban research, and some initial ﬁndings from ongoing studies on planetary urbanization. Keywords: Planetary Urbanization: Global inﬂuence and transnational nature of urbanization. It asserts the necessity of adopting a decentralized to illuminate phenomena traditionally overlooked and fully comprehend the process, emphasizing the interconnectedness of urban areas across borders. Postcolonial Urbanism: Study and understanding of urban development in former colonies or regions that have experienced colonial rule moving out of established centres of knowledge like the city centre to explore places not usually considered to be part of the urban world. Limiting our study to aJluent cities can obscure the intricate processes of urbanization and global uneven development. Extended Urbanization: Urbanization outside the agglomeration, there is no concentrated urbanization without extended urbanization (food brought from further away. Concrete Abstraction: Is fundamental and serves as a crucial theoretical tool. This concept refers to a type of abstraction that is not detached from reality but is instead deeply rooted in historical processes, continually shaped, and subject to debate and contestation over time. In essence, Lefebvre viewed abstract concepts like the urban or the state as manifestations of concrete social realities. They are not abstract in the sense of being disconnected from the lived experiences of people but are instead grounded in the material conditions and social relations of speciﬁc historical moments. 1 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti By framing his concepts as concrete abstractions, Lefebvre aimed to highlight the dynamic nature of social phenomena, emphasizing the importance of understanding them within their historical and social contexts. Critical Urban Theory: Critical Theory isn't just a reﬂection of the world; it's a tool for understanding it. It helps us see things diJerently and ﬁnd new connections. But it's only valuable when it's tested against real-world experiences. Critical Theory evolves through this interaction, challenging norms and sparking imagination for new ideas. Henri Lefebvre: French sociologist and philosopher known for his inﬂuential work on urban studies and critical theory from the 1950s until his death in 1991. Introduction: “Today it can be argued that every square inch of world is urbanized to some degree”. The concept of planetary urbanization is meant to elaborate and give a diJerent analytical perspective on the urban phenomena. Analytical perspective: A way of examining and understanding a subject or issue by breaking it down into its component parts The traditional concept of city: The city: A densely populated and bounded urban form. This conception of city has been already challenged by many, with references to a multitude of conﬂicting observations. The problem with it: The seemingly familiar form of the urban is being fundamentally transformed across the planet. However, despite the increasing evidence, city-centric conceptions of the urban are still maintained in many scholarly contributions. Schmids proposal: Rather than trying to reassert the concept of the “city” amidst these ongoing implosions and explosions of urban areas, he proposes to explore contemporary urban phenomena from a radical diJerent angle: The observer is usually positioned in the centre of an agglomeration trying to delineate it as a city/urban region. Adopting planetary urbanization means exactly that: looking form an ex-centric position, from the periphery. This approach allows researchers to identify urban expressions often overlooked due to their location outside major cities. It analyses traditional sites illuminating the wider context, revealing a broader contexts, diverse relationships, and interactions between central and periphery areas. 2 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Schmid understands planetary urbanization not as a single encompassing urban process, but rather as a complex interplay of related but contradictory processes marked by the uneven development of capitalism and various social and political factors. Planetary urbanization is a historical and not a universal phenomenon that developed in the last decades and produces very diJerent urban outcomes. To grasp the complexities of planetary urbanization, we require both theoretical insights and meticulous empirical research to illuminate the diverse urban realities emerging worldwide. The Power of the Urban: the movement in Zurich Schmids entry point to urban studies was in Zurich in the early 1980 during the Zurich “movement” and urban revolts. At stake was the urban, the right to the city, the right to live diJerent forms of alternative lifestyles, questions about women, communal living, and alternative culture. After the revolt it became clear the Zurich everyday life, its public spaces and cultural sphere had fundamentally changed, it became more open minded and propelled a strategy of integration. In a Lefebvrian sense, it can be said that the movement and its repercussions in a wider social context indeed had produced a diJerent urban space. Schmid was particularly inspired by his thesis of the complete urbanization of society, his concept of the urban revolution, and his understanding of the urban as a process. Schmid worked in the Rote Fabric (a concrete result from the Zurich “movement”) which oJered grate opportunities to confront theoretical insights with the practical world by organizing public events and discussions. The experiences Schmid gained through activism constantly challenged his theoretical reﬂections, thus stimulating him to revise his concepts. Theory and practice with Lefebvre These concepts quickly revealed their limits when confronted with the practical world. They were mid-range concepts addressing speciﬁc research questions, diJicult to integrate in more encompassing analytical framework. Schmid tried to go back to Lefebvre, but it was not really accessible at the time, most books were not translated. He ﬁnally embarked upon the audacious task to reconstruct Lefebvre theory from scratch. Lefebvre’s theory proved to be extremely productive. Particularly useful is his three-dimensional concept of the production of space: Henri Lefebvre's three-dimensional concept of the production of space refers to his theoretical framework for understanding how space is produced and experienced within society. According to Lefebvre, space is not simply a passive backdrop for human activities but is actively shaped by social, economic, and cultural forces. He conceptualizes space as having three interrelated dimensions: 1. Perceived Space: This dimension encompasses the everyday experiences and perceptions of space by individuals 2. Conceived Space: Refers to the abstract representations and conceptualizations of space created by planners, architects. It includes maps, plans, designs, and other forms of spatial representations that inﬂuence how space is organized and utilized. 3. Lived Space: Represents the actual, lived experiences and social practices that occur within space. It encompasses the ways in which people inhabit, use, and transform space through their daily activities, routines, and interactions. 3 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Each dimension inﬂuences and shapes the others. This framework allows for a comprehensive analysis of the social dynamics and power relations that shape the spatial organization of society. What is the contemporary urban condition in Switzerland? Analysing the urbanization of Switzerland on the track of Lefebvre’s hypothesis of complete urbanization we detect diJerences concealed behind an entrenched ideology that declared large parts of the country as “rural”. Application of the new approach *Schmid’s proposal* Precisely because we applied a radically new approach: Not analyse individual cities or urban regions, but the entire territory, including seemingly rural areas, developing a territorial approach to urban analysis. And looked without preconceptions at the entire territory of Switzerland, we were able to develop an alternative representation of space that revealed a very diJerent reality: Switzerland is not only urbanized to a very large degree, but at the same time also highly polarized, resulting in very diJerentiated urbanized landscapes. This new approach was a starting point for the research on planetary urbanisation. Critical Theory Is not the world, not the reality. Critical Theory is a theory a tool of thinking and instrument that enables research. Tanks to this we can detect new connections and alternative paths of development. A theory is ﬁrst and foremost a tool that helps to “re-cognize” the world. When a concept “works,” because it allows to see the world in a diJerent light, or from a diJerent perspective. Theory has to prove its value in the confrontation with social reality: Theories advance through the confrontation with practical reality. This also means to confront oneself with the unknown, to refuse all sorts of ideological prohibitions that limit our imagination and our capacity for developing new concepts. Abstraction Abstraction is an essential and valid method for developing theories and conducting scientiﬁc analysis. Critical researchers should strive to understand the complete picture and the entirety of a phenomenon or process, without limiting their eJorts to the practical. Critical (urban) studies have to explore and to take the best use of the possibilities that theory has to oJer. Concrete and Abstract: The relationship of abstract and concrete As Marx said: to start an analysis with an apparently concrete category, such as that of the population (because it seems to be more “real”) is actually based on a wrong assumption. 4 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti A closer examination reveals that this “population” is itself an abstraction, a highly problematic one at that, a “chaotic conception of the whole” (gender, social, and labour division, …). It is therefore necessary to seek out the simplest abstraction before the analysis can again go to the concert. The goal is not to argue whether abstract or concrete theories are better, but to explore how diJerent theories can combine abstract and concrete ideas to better understand social realities. Marx argues that: living human labour is stripped of all its speciﬁc qualities, until it is nothing more than the simple deployment of labour power. Abstraction is thus not a mental operation, but a material process that takes place in and through a concrete praxis. At the same time, this worker has her own life and personal habits that are not automatically dominated by the logic of capital. To write a history of capital that is necessarily universal, and yet at the same time is also a history of diJerences and subjectivities. As one possible answer, he develops his distinction between the two aspects of historical analysis: History 1 and History 2. The question of the relationship between the concrete and the abstract constitutes. The problem is precisely to understand the interrelationship between capitalist forms of abstraction and particular lived experiences as entangled aspects of the same historical process. Certainly, for those who adopt a Lefebvrean perspective, the concept of “concrete abstraction” is an essential theoretical tool. Lefebvre conceived all his basic concepts (the “urban,” the “state,” as well as “everyday life”) as concrete abstractions. For Marx it was not so: everyday was a concrete concept, diJerentiation between History 1 and 2 For Lefevre those concepts are together and all concrete abstractions. Thus, everyday life in Lefebvre’s understanding is itself the result of a process of abstraction. In a Lefebvrian perspective on everyday life, therefore, we have not only to study concrete situations and moments of rupture but also the diverse processes of commodiﬁcation, the norms, constraints, and forms of violence that are deeply embedded in everyday life. Abstract space Lefebvre used the idea of "concrete abstraction" to analyze how space is produced. He showed that the interaction between capital and state strategies creates an "abstract space" driven by economic and political interests. Wilson applied this concept to the "Plan Puebla" infrastructure project in southern Mexico and Central America. He highlighted the conﬂict between this abstract space, created by capital and power, and the local concrete "diJerential spaces" created through local struggle and resistance. These inspiring cases lead Schmids general reﬂections on the abstract and the concert back to the question of concept of planetary urbanization and its application in urban research. 5 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Abstract: analysis of planetary urbanization has not only to look at processes of capital circulation, global production networks and state strategies. Concrete: But has also to focus on social mobilizations and struggles, the concert conditions of everyday life, social relations, gender relations, wage relations, nature. The consideration of everyday life is therefore not an alternative to “abstract” conceptions of planetary urbanization, but a necessary part of its analysis. Planetary urbanization and critical urban research Does the concept of planetary urbanization make sense without considering diJerences and complexity? Urbanization happens on many levels and scales. To understand it, we need to think about diJerent social realities and how they connect various places and regions. This involves analysing speciﬁc urban situations and placing them in the context of larger global processes. This conceptual triad is obviously derived from Lefebvre’s theory of the production of space. Relationships between postcolonial and planetary conceptions of urbanization. Both invite urban scholars to go beyond entrenched assumptions, to explore new terrains of research, and moving out of established centres of knowledge like the city centre our the main urban models like LA, … to explore places not usually considered to be part of the urban world. Without any doubt, postcolonial scholars have fundamentally transformed the ﬁeld of urban studies by challenging dominant Western concepts and their privileged spatial reference points. Ordinary city There are no privileged places for the generation of insights into the urban: every city can potentially serve as a legitimate and valuable starting point for the construction of urban theory. What could be learned from such research? Using the decentring perspective of planetary urbanization as a starting point. Example: Pipelines in Canada Is the pipeline urban? Peoples led their lives in trans-local fashion, in and between reserves and oJ- reserve places of work. This study conveys important ideas and inspirations on how to study processes of planetary urbanization. The most radical move of decentring the analytical prospective is “eclipse”: Masking the entire territory of the city in order to make visible all those areas that were concealed so far by the “bright lights” of this global city. In an amazing analysis the team can show how a densely woven urban fabric came into existence around Singapore, forming an extended urban region. All these examples make it clear that the concept of planetary urbanization is already applied and realized in many diJerent ways, and from various angles and approaches. Thus, the practical value of the concept of planetary urbanization can already be examined by evaluating the rich theoretical and empirical ﬁndings presented in all these case studies. 6 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti What is the urban under conditions of planetary urbanization? For Lefebvre “urban” was an abbreviation for unban society, in his understanding a society that can be realized only in and through a revolution (an urban revolution) from the ruins of an industrial capitalist society. This was certainly inspired by the urban moment he had experienced in May 1968 in Paris. Accordingly, he used the slogan “the right to the city”. In his understanding, the right to the city is directly linked to the access to centrality as an indispensable social resource. Lefebvre explicitly rejected the concept of the “city” as the central basis for an understanding of the urban. Instead, Lefebvre developed the idea of the urban as a “level” of social reality, which mediates between the general level (global) (the realm of capital and the state) and the private level (everyday life). As Lefebvre clearly experienced, the “urban” can never be fully grasped by theoretical analysis. Every analysis generates a residue, an inexplicable rest that can only be expressed by poetic and artistic means. Conclusions: What is planetary urbanization? the concept of planetary urbanization ﬁrst and foremost as the outline of a problematique, neither a fully developed, elaborated theory, nor a clearly bounded approach. The goal was to engage in a brooder debate on some key questions. In this sense, the concept of planetary urbanization is intended to oJer a diJerent, decentred perspective on the process of urbanization, to illuminate processes and phenomena that are not traditionally considered to be connected to urbanization, studies of planetary urbanization could oJer some new conceptual frameworks, methods and research questions, and to stimulate new pathways of investigation. 7 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Zürich: from Paranoia City to Ego City Zurich is a global city today. Although comparatively small (400,000), it is one of the most important cities in the global city hierarchy. Zürich’s history 1950: Zürich was an industrial town (machine building and armament industry) Halve of workforce was in the manufacturing sector. After WW2 Zürich became the centre of Swiss economy. 1970 -80: Zürich was the headquarter for economy and specialized in control of global ﬁnancial ﬂows. The transformation to Global City o Thanks to increasing deregulation and globalization of ﬁnancial markets. Radical economic transformation has caused a fundamental change in the urban development of Zurich. o The process was still a contradictory and crisis-prone one. o Two lines of conﬂict: 1. Controversy concerning the modernization of the city. 2. Question of urban culture. 1990: A fundamental change in the urban development of Zurich with the process of metropolitanization and expansion of the Global City into the region: o Before, it was growth oriented but still with lots of regulations and interested in the conservation of inner-city areas. o After, the model of urbanization was characterized by neoliberal policy of urban development, by emergence of new urban conﬁgurations and a new deﬁnition of the urban. 2001: Workforce distribution: o 7% in the manufacturing sector o 36% in the core sector of the global city (ﬁnancial industries, insurance, and business) Still a small city: municipality of Zurich: 360’000 Agglomeration of Zurich: 1,1 million Urban region of Zurich: 2 million 1 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Global city formation: territorial compromise and urban revolt After the Second World War, right-wing and social-democratic forces deﬁned urban change. At the beginning of the 1970s: The protest movement of the late 60s caused a radical questioning of urban development. The economic crisis ended the golden age of Fordism. In the 1970s and 80s: Transformation of Zurich in a Global City The growth coalition fell apart, dividing the city in two. This sparked questions about the urban development of Zurich and the modernisation of it: 1. Right-wing parties and growth-oriented sections of trade unions wanted: a. Wanted the development of Zurich as a ﬁnancial centre. b. The extension of the CBD (Central Business District). c. And the further development of the tra_ic infrastructure. 2. Left-wing parties, action groups and neighbourhood organizations, following the movement and protest of 68, fought for: a. A liveable city. b. Low rents. c. Preservation of residential neighbourhood in the inner city. ð (Basically, the right to the city) Zurich initially aimed for growth while preserving its urban values and controlling development. By the 1990s, the city's expansion led to a shift towards neoliberal policies like competition and a freer market. Despite attempts through direct democracy, no side decisively won, resulting in a compromise. From the mid-1970s to the mid-1990s: Zurich's urban development was stalled by political deadlock. Modernization and cultural change slowed down in residential areas dominated by traditional and conservative values (church). Public life was characterized by narrow-mindedness which left hardly any margin for new lifestyles or alternative forms of cultural expression. Zurich's social life still heavily reﬂected the inﬂuence of the church, allowing little room for new or alternative lifestyles. This restriction led to an urban revolt on May 30, 1980, the new cosmopolitan urban generation asked for what Henry Lefebvre called the “right to the city (1968)”. It lasted for two years, but its consequences became visible in later. The city government began investing in various cultural projects, laying the groundwork for a successful creative sector (design, access to places of social wealth, urban infrastructure, and knowledge; and the right to di_erence. Today the cultural production, developed thanks to this revolution, plays a key role in the economy of Zurich compared to other global cities. Zurich city is at the same time metropolitan and exclusive. 2 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Metropolitanization: The Region Scale The new concept of the city: The city centre evolved into a culturally and socially vibrant hub. O_ices, shops, services, and ﬁnancial companies relocated elsewhere: o initially to the newly vacated industrial parts of the city and increasingly to the outskirts from the 1980s onward. o Many important company headquarters emerged in these suburban areas. A new urban structure emerged, characterized by the regionalization of the economy and society. The outskirts became integral to daily life, expanding of the centre’s functions as a Global City across an enlarged region. The city expanded into regional dimensions; a process akin to metropolitanization. Deﬁning the exact boundaries of this area is challenging. More and more cities fell under Zurich's inﬂuence as a headquarters economy, acquiring metropolitan traits. Zurich's metropolitan area spans hundreds of municipalities across seven cantons, with commuter ﬂows from all directions. The commuter map illustrates Zurich's polycentric structure. Alongside Zurich's centre, newer centres like Winterthur, Baden, or Zug have emerged, each with distinct characteristics. Complemented by the entire Zurich agglomeration: Limmat Valley with a strong industrial identity and Glatt Valley with its dynamic development cantered around the airport. A series of edge cities have developed, forming a ring such as Kloten, collectively forming Zurich North as a post-modern sister city to Zurich. Other cantons also contribute to the Zurich metropolitan region, which functions as a polycentric metropolitan area. 3 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti Zurich Nord - Expolis Model Edward J. Soja calls places like Zurich North "Exopolis" - the city without, referring to a new urban structure that is formless and outside traditional city deﬁnitions. It's a city without urban characteristics. Zurich North is the fourth largest city in Zurich, home to many IT companies, banks, and headquarters, thanks to the ﬂexible network of the airport and highway in Zurich North. Twenty years ago, Zurich was a typical middle-class suburb consisting of many individual municipalities. The municipality aimed to preserve the city centre and distribute businesses to the outskirts. Due to deindustrialization and the transformation into a Global City, industrial companies did not come to Zurich North, but rather only their headquarters. A satellite ring of headquarters and small canters emerged, spread far apart. The interior of this ring is a forest, creating a ring city with an empty centre, similar to Soja's "doughnut model," which describes Orange County. This non-city is highly dependent on cars due to its layout, resulting in tra_ic congestion and air pollution. This environment is unattractive; most of these new canters lack urban infrastructure, restaurants, meeting places, and elements that could create an urban atmosphere and identity. It remains a low-quality patchwork city with a peripheral status. Eight municipalities attempted to improve this patchwork with cooperation and coordination planning initiatives in the 90s. Zurich North became "Glattstadt." The new name was meant to represent a new region with its own ideas and identity, distinct from the city of Zurich. The most important project is the construction of a tram line to connect the non-city areas of Zurich Nord, symbolizing a "city of the future" and independence. This line even has its own o_icial name: Stadtbahn, unlike in Zurich, where it's called Tram. The airport in Glattalstadt causes problems. Located in the middle of this region, it is the central economic engine. Germany, as an immediate neighbour a_ected by landing planes, has placed a limit on ﬂights over this area in 2004. Swiss not being part of UE is an island, planes must traverse UE air space that could get restricted like in this case. Additionally, airplane noise in Glattal could lead to further fragmentation in the future, as people seek to live far from the airport. E_orts are being made to turn Zurich North into a real city, but it struggles with the existing patchwork structure, continuously creating new problems. 4 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti The Metropolis Alliance: change in urban development. As the Global City expanded into the region, the centre of Zurich also underwent signiﬁcant changes. In the 1990s, there was a shift in thinking regarding downtown development due to two crises: 1. In the early 1990s, Switzerland, like most European countries, faced an economic crisis. The government was forced to take measures and implement budget cuts. 2. The consequences of globalization became increasingly apparent. Market economy (free trade), economic and social polarization, and division became obvious. These developments led to fundamental changes in the political landscape. Far-right parties began to form, initially on the outskirts of the metropolis, in suburban areas, but soon they started appearing in the centre as well. In 1990, for the ﬁrst time since the 1930s, a left-wing majority was elected to the city council. At the same time, right-wing parties organized against the socially and culturally open left-wing majority (a consequence of the 1980s movements). The right-wing parties made drugs and asylum issues their main political themes and found success with this approach. In the following years, the political and social climate cooled considerably. Then, the moderate (social-democratic and liberal) parties attempted to ﬁnd pragmatic solutions, for example, for tra_ic or drug laws, or the revision of the land use plan (1990). The right-wing (modernizing) wanted o_ice buildings to be built. While the left-wing (stabilizing) wanted to preserve the areas. A more restrictive land use plan was adopted in 1992 to the delight of the left-wing. However, it was revised again in 1995 by the more right-leaning cantonal council. Ultimately, the liberals and the left- wing created a new plan that initiated a neoliberal urban development. The territorial compromise was broken, and a new concept/alliance emerged: the connection of the metropolises. The focus was now on competition, international investors, and global capital. Historically, this deviated from the principles of Zurich's urban planning, which previously focused on preserving urban qualities such as residential neighbourhoods and was now opened for o_ices and other developments. The city started to be assimilated to the region, spreading across it. The Fall of Zurich West: The Reconstruction of the City The Zurich region had politically right-leaning tendencies, while the inner city leaned left-liberal. This trend was generally seen in German-speaking Switzerland. In Zurich, political preferences reﬂected di_erent lifestyles and cultural activities in various locations. o Many people preferred living in suburban areas (right), while others were drawn to the city (left). o Even today, cultural o_erings and a cosmopolitan milieu are still concentrated in the city centre. The proximity of di_erent lifestyles is attractive to companies as well as "urban professionals." The "new" urban feeling is most pronounced in Zurich West. In the 1980s, this inner-city area was still one of the main centres of the Swiss machine industry. 5 Soziologie FS24 Roberto Innocenti After de-industrialization, many of these companies left. This area was reserved for the ﬁnancial sector. However, due to the ﬁnancial and real estate crisis, these projects were not realized. The area became a 'utopian place,' o_ering space for all sorts of fantasies. Various uses emerged, sometimes o_icially, sometimes uno_icially; small, ﬁnancially weak businesses, illegal bars and discos, theatres, artist studios, and various projects arose (take-over process). This mix of work, living, entertainment, and unconventional atmosphere attracted many other uses like hotels or international consulting ﬁrms. The industrial wastelands were transformed into an elegant urban neighbourhood. To this day, many of these pioneer projects have been relocated (gentriﬁcation), but many have also "survived." Zurich West represents the new model of inner-city development. The district is signiﬁcantly di_erent from the rest of the inner city thanks to its high level of diversity. The area consists of various interconnected islands. The new model of urban development In the late 1990s, urban development changed signiﬁcantly, marking the beginning of a new urban era. Los Angeles was dubbed the "exemplary industrial metropolis of the modern world" due to its polycentric structure (Soja and Scott 1986). Things settled in the Exopolis. (This analysis is a typical Western one, Post Colonial Urban Theory would not be happy) The example of Zurich illustrates this new development: 1. The polycentric development of cities and the formation of regions are a common and general phenomenon, even in smaller cities. a. Zurich demonstrates that speciﬁc local traditions have a strong inﬂuence on a city's development. 2. The process of metropolitanization divides a city into pieces. It is no longer possible to deﬁne the urban area precisely. It consists of unexpected compositions and overlapping conﬁgurations. In Zurich, various models converge: a. On one hand, the Exopolis in Zurich North: an attempt to bring a classical urban model into an eccentric, urban chaotic situation and create a new urban structure. b. On the other hand, the new inner city in Zurich West: with its compact network of social interactions. Both models do not correspond to the traditional cityscape. 3. Despite the trend toward polycentricity, the relationship between periphery and centre remains very contradictory. a. In Zurich, this fact has rather increased during this process. Politically and culturally, the periphery and centre are diverging. 6

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