Social Psychology Notes.pdf

Introduction to Social Psychology Definition and Scope Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, whether real or imagined. Key figure: Lewin (1946) emphasized the importance of experiments in testing social psychol...

Introduction to Social Psychology Definition and Scope Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social contexts, whether real or imagined. Key figure: Lewin (1946) emphasized the importance of experiments in testing social psychological questions and developing theories about social influence. Social psychology is distinct from sociology, cognitive psychology, clinical psychology, and personality psychology, although there are overlaps between these fields. Key Concerns of Social Psychologists Combatting stereotypes and prejudice Resisting negative influences from others Building and maintaining positive relationships Helping individuals achieve their goals Understanding the factors leading to the rejection of scientific information Relevance of Social Psychology Application of scientific findings to improve personal life Impact of social psychology on everyday interactions and decisions Examples of how laptop use can affect academic performance through distractions and note-taking methods Historical Development of Social Psychology Birth of Social Psychology Systematic study began in the late 1800s, focusing on how the presence of others influences behavior. Notable studies by Triplett (1898) and Ringelmann (1913) highlighted social facilitation and social loafing effects. Evolution in Research  WWII era prompted inquiries into human behavior during atrocities, leading to significant contributions by Sherif, Lewin, Asch, Milgram, Festinger, and Allport. Initial research primarily conducted in North America, later expanding to include diverse methods and cultural contexts. Replication Crisis Contemporary challenges include the replication crisis, where many studies fail to replicate their findings. Initiatives like the Open Science Collaboration aim to address replication issues and enhance research credibility. Themes and Approaches in Social Psychology Core Themes Integration of Emotion, Motivation, and Cognition in understanding social behavior Consideration of Genetic and Evolutionary Perspectives Exploration of Cultural influences on social interactions Adoption of Interdisciplinary Approaches for comprehensive insights Examination of the Social Body and Brain in shaping behavior Embracing New Technologies and Online Environments for research Adherence to New Standards and Practices in conducting social psychology research Conducting Social Psychology Research Importance of Research Literacy in interpreting and consuming research findings The Research Process involves generating ideas, formulating hypotheses, testing them, and iteratively developing theories. Characteristics of a Good Theory include causal relationships, coherence, parsimony, testability, generative capacity, and problem-solving ability. Types of Research in Social Psychology Basic Research focuses on understanding human behavior and testing theoretical hypotheses. Applied Research aims to address real-world issues and solve social problems, often informed by basic research. Defining and Measuring Variables involves operational definitions, construct validity, and various measurement methods like self-reports, observations, and technology. Conducting Social Psychology Research Research Design Descriptive Research methods include observational studies, archival studies, and surveys for describing behaviors and attitudes. Correlational Research examines relationships between variables using correlation coefficients, emphasizing that correlation does not imply causation. Causal Research, primarily through experiments, establishes causal relationships between variables by controlling and manipulating factors. Experimental Design Components of an Experiment: Independent variable (IV), Dependent variable (DV), Control Condition, and Subject Variables. Ensuring Internal Validity by minimizing confounds and experimenter biases, and External Validity by testing in diverse contexts and populations. Ethical considerations in research, including informed consent, debriefing, and adherence to research standards and practices. Additional Research Methods Meta-analysis as a valuable tool for combining and analyzing results from multiple studies. Considerations of cultural influences on research methods and findings. Ethical standards in research, guided by policies like the Tri-Council Policy Statement 2 (TCPS 2). Self-Perception and Self-Awareness The Self and Self-Concept The self refers to an individual's identity and consciousness. The Cocktail Effect allows people to focus on information about themselves, like hearing their name in a crowded room. Self-concept is the collection of beliefs an individual holds about their personal attributes. Self-schemas are specific beliefs guiding the processing of self-relevant information, such as gender identity. Aschematic individuals lack well-developed self-schemas for certain topics, like not strongly favoring dogs or cats. Self-Recognition and Self-Awareness Self-recognition involves the ability to identify oneself, demonstrated by great apes and humans but not by cats or dogs. Self-awareness encompasses thinking about oneself and recognizing oneself in a mirror. Humans and great apes exhibit self-awareness by recognizing themselves in mirrors. Ways of Self-Knowledge Introspection involves examining one's mental and emotional processes. Self-knowledge can be gained through perceptions of one's behaviors, comparisons with others, and autobiographical memories. Introspection and Affective Forecasting Affective forecasting is predicting emotional responses to future events. People tend to overestimate the intensity and duration of emotional responses (impact bias). Humans exhibit emotional resilience and adaptability, leading to underestimation of external influences on emotions. We are proficient at providing explanations for our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. Perceptions of Behaviors and Motivations Daryl Bem's self-perception theory suggests that people learn about themselves by observing their behaviors. Self-perception theory helps interpret behaviors when internal cues are ambiguous. Facial feedback hypothesis states that changes in facial expressions can influence emotions.  Intrinsic motivation drives activities for interest or joy, while extrinsic motivation is driven by rewards. The overjustification effect occurs when intrinsic motivation decreases due to external rewards. Comparing Ourselves to Other People Social Comparison Theory Proposed by Festinger in 1954, the theory suggests that people evaluate their abilities and opinions by comparing themselves to others. This comparison is especially prevalent when objective evaluation is unavailable. Individuals tend to care more about how they perform relative to others rather than the absolute score. Social comparisons often occur with similar others, influencing self-perception. Social Comparisons and Social Media Studies like Vogel et al. (2014) have linked social media use to 'Facebook depression' due to comparisons with others. Individuals engage in upward (comparing to more successful) and downward (comparing to less successful) comparisons. Upward comparisons may lead to lower self-ratings, while passive scrolling on social media can result in negative self-perception. Social Comparisons and Social Outcomes Research by Wood et al. (2000) found that Waterloo students compare themselves to less successful peers to feel better. Agarwal et al. (2016) observed that in Canada, lottery-winners' neighbors were more likely to go bankrupt, possibly due to conspicuous consumption. Emotion and Social Comparison Schachter & Singer's (1962) study injected participants with adrenaline and found that emotional responses were influenced by the presence of others. While the findings were not consistently replicated, they suggest that external factors can impact self-perceived emotions. Autobiographical Memory and Cultural Factors Autobiographical Memory Autobiographical memory, crucial for the sense of self, includes personal history and selective memory of events. Memories, such as positive social interactions, 'firsts,' and surprising events, shape self-concept but may not be entirely accurate. Cultural factors influence memory recall, with collectivist cultures emphasizing group identities and individualistic cultures focusing on personal traits and goals. Cultural Factors in Self-Perception Kim & Markus (1999) found differences in gift choices between European Americans and East Asians, reflecting cultural values. Collectivist cultures prioritize interdependence and group identity, while individualistic cultures emphasize independence and personal traits. Self-Esteem and its Implications Understanding Self-Esteem Self-esteem comprises positive and negative self-evaluations, influencing how individuals value themselves. It can be both a trait and a state, with stability over a lifetime but fluctuations in response to feedback. The sociometer theory posits that self-esteem is crucial for social approval, while terror management theory suggests it serves as a buffer against existential fears. Outcomes and Influences on Self-Esteem High self-esteem is associated with happiness, health, productivity, and success, while low self-esteem correlates with depression and pessimism. Research on the relationship between self-esteem and life outcomes yields mixed results, with some suggesting that success leads to higher self-esteem. Gender and Race Disparities  Gender differences in self-esteem are specific, with men often valuing appearance and athleticism more, and women prioritizing ethics and morality. African Americans tend to have higher self-esteem scores than White Americans, while Latinx, Asian, and Indigenous individuals may score lower. Self-Awareness, Self-Presentation, and Self-Monitoring Self-Awareness Theory Self-focused attention can lead to self-discrepancies, prompting behavior change or avoidance of self-awareness. Baumeister's (1991) study on self-medication highlights how individuals cope with negative self-perceptions. Self-regulation, the control of thoughts and behaviors to achieve goals, is not an unlimited resource and can be influenced by cultural norms. Self-Presentation Strategies Strategic self-presentation involves shaping impressions for influence or approval, with goals like ingratiation and self-promotion. Self-verification, the desire for others to perceive us accurately, is universal and observed in both individualist and collectivist cultures. Self-Monitoring and Cultural Influences Self-monitoring, regulating behavior to fit social demands, varies between high and low self-monitors. High self-monitors adapt to social situations, while low self-monitors prioritize authenticity and self-verification. Social Perception Perception of Physical Appearance People tend to judge others based on their physical appearance, with age, gender, and race being the main categories. Evaluation of faces is quick, spontaneous, and often unconscious, leading to the inference of personal characteristics. Different facial features can lead to varied judgments; for example, baby-faced individuals are often perceived differently due to associations with helplessness. Mature faces typically have prominent cheekbones and chin, a thin oval-shaped face, and smaller eyes, while baby faces are characterized by a round face and big eyes. The evaluation of faces occurs rapidly, influencing initial perceptions and interactions. First Impressions and Situational Perceptions Initial perceptions enable individuals to anticipate goals, behaviors, and likely outcomes in specific settings. Examples like the 'first date script' illustrate the sequence of events and expectations in social interactions. Understanding behavioral cues, such as nonverbal behavior, plays a crucial role in forming first impressions and navigating social situations. Nonverbal behaviors, including facial expressions, body language, and vocal cues, convey emotions and intentions without words. Cultural variations in nonverbal communication, such as greetings and gestures, can impact social interactions and interpretations. Detecting Truth and Deception Most individuals struggle to accurately detect lies, with exceptions like US Secret Service Agents who are trained in deception detection. Common misconceptions about lying include associating behaviors like averting eyes or fidgeting with deception. Voice cues, such as hesitation, changes in speed, and pitch, can be more reliable indicators of deception than nonverbal behaviors. Cognitive effort plays a role in lying, as deceptive individuals may exhibit difficulties in tasks like recounting stories in reverse chronological order. Understanding the challenges and cues associated with detecting truth and deception is essential in various social contexts. Attribution Attribution Theories Attribution theories aim to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior, distinguishing between personal and situational attributions. Personal attributions relate to internal characteristics, such as personality traits, while situational attributions involve external factors like the environment. The Correspondent Inference Theory explores how behaviors reflect enduring personal traits based on choice, expectedness, and intended effects. Covariation Theory examines whether personal traits or environmental factors influence behavior, emphasizing consensus, distinctiveness, and consistency. Attribution biases, such as the Fundamental Attribution Error, influence how individuals perceive and explain others' behaviors. Cognitive Heuristics and Biases Cognitive heuristics, like the availability heuristic and false-consensus effect, impact decision-making and perception by providing mental shortcuts. Counterfactual thinking involves imagining alternative outcomes, leading to feelings of regret or relief based on unchosen paths. The Fundamental Attribution Error highlights the tendency to overemphasize personal causes and underestimate situational influences when interpreting behavior. Cultural and motivational biases further shape social perceptions, impacting attributions based on personal hopes, needs, and preferences. Understanding cognitive biases and heuristics is crucial in evaluating social perceptions and decision-making processes. Belief Systems in Social Perception Belief in a Just World People get what they deserve in life. Leads to victim blaming and disparaging victims. "Believing that something bad happening to you is your fault in some way causes you to believe if you are a good person, nothing bad will happen to you." Example: Being blamed for leaving something valuable in your car when it gets broken into. Information Integration Impression Formation: Process of integrating information to form a coherent impression.  Information Integration Theory: Impressions based on perceived disposition and weighted average of characteristics. Tendency to take an average rather than a sum. Factors like perceiver characteristics and priming effects can influence this integration. Perceiver Characteristics Perceivers rely on their own traits and mood to make assumptions about others. Not solely based on average impressions. Example: Using personal traits to judge others. Priming Effects Priming: Influence of recently perceived words/ideas on interpreting new information. Study by Higgins et al. (1977) showing how priming affects impressions. Example: Reading positive or negative words before forming an impression. Factors Influencing Social Perception Target Characteristics Some characteristics like extroversion are easier to spot. Trait Negativity Bias: Weighing negative information more heavily. Universal dimensions of social perception: Warmth and competence. Example: Weighing negative traits more than positive ones. Implicit Personality Traits Network of assumptions about how traits and behaviors are related. Central traits like 'warm' and 'cold' have significant impact. Warmth and competence are universal dimensions of social perception. Primacy Effect Information presented early has more impact on impressions. Tendency to be influenced by initial information about a person. Example: Interpreting information in light of first impressions. Impression Formation and Beliefs Using impressions to predict future behavior. Changing impressions based on new information. Immoral behaviors are seen as more revealing of character.  Judging more based on negative acts due to their abnormality. Cognitive Biases and Social Perception Perseverance of Beliefs Confirmation Biases: Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs. Belief Perseverance: Maintaining beliefs even after they are discredited. Example: Creating explanations to perpetuate discredited beliefs. Confirmatory Hypothesis Testing Seeking information that confirms existing beliefs. Study by Snyder & Swann (1978) demonstrating confirmatory bias. Initial negative impressions can be particularly stubborn. Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectations about a person influencing their behavior. Study by Rosenthal and Jacobsen (1968) on teacher expectations affecting student performance. Insecure behavior leading to rejection, reinforcing initial insecurity. Enhancing Social Perception The Bottom Line Two views of social perception: Quick and automatic vs. Mindful and reserved. Importance of experience, motivation for accuracy, and open-mindedness in forming accurate impressions. Individuals vary in accuracy of social perceptions based on factors like adjustment. Competent Social Perception Experience improves judgment accuracy. Ability to make specific predictions about behavior in one's presence. Accuracy in impressions influenced by motivation and open-mindedness. Individual differences in social perception accuracy.