Police Data & Limitations PDF

Police data: Limitations Limitations of police report data: UCR systems typically place more emphasis on street crimes Underreporting: Many crimes are not recorded in the UCR system -UCR systems are susceptible to under reporting crime -There are several steps...

Police data: Limitations Limitations of police report data: UCR systems typically place more emphasis on street crimes Underreporting: Many crimes are not recorded in the UCR system -UCR systems are susceptible to under reporting crime -There are several steps to recording a crime in the system: 1. Someone must know about the crime 2. This person must report the crime to the police 3. The police must decide whether a crime has really occurred and decided what kind of crime it is 4. The police must decide to write a report about the crime -Crimes that do not pass the final step become part of the “dark figure” of crime Reasons for not reporting crime 1. Fear of self incrimination 2. Fear of revenge by the offender 3. Crime was too minor to bother reporting 4. Cynicism toward the legal system ( past bad experiences with the police and dont believe police will help) 5. Crime is considered a private matter that requires a private response Rate sensitivity: Official rates might be more of a indicator of police and legislative activities rather than actual crime behaviors -UCR crime rates may be influenced by police and legislative activities Policing-sensitive crimes: Crime rates can change depending on new initiatives or proactive efforts from law enforcement. Predictive policing can lead to over policing certain areas or groups  Definition-sensitive crimes: New laws or modified legislation can impact crime rates Victimization Data Victimization surveys are used to measure the prevalence and impact of crime by talking to victims United states(1972-) National crime victimization survey Official U.S. government survey run by Bureau of justice statistics Nationally representative sample of U.S. households Asks about the types of crime experienced, victim characteristics, reporting to police Canada(1988): General social survey(GSS)- Canadiens Safety Official Canadian survey run by statistics Canada(every 5 years) Nationally representative sample of Canadian households NCVS/GSS data and UCR typically show different crime rates Advantages of victimization surveys 1. Ability to study the dark figure of crime by asking about crimes that were not reported to the police Offer more information on some crimes that are underreported in UCR data 2. Provide more information about the circumstances and consequences of the crime from the victims perspective 3. Large sample sizes for statistical analyses that allow us to generalize results to the wider population Limitations of victimization surveys 1. Self-report data are susceptible to misreporting 2. Refusal to participate in the survey 3. Samples do not capture “non resident” victims 4. Limited and filtered information about offenders 5. Re designing and adjusting the survey instrument creates challenges for studying changes in victimization rates over time Offender Data Criminologists can learn about offenders’ behaviors, characteristics, motivations, and rationalizations by talking to them Unofficial source of crime data Quantitative and Qualitative approaches to collecting and analyzing offender data What are the unique methodological and ethical considerations facing criminologists Quantitative Researchers administer questionnaire that ask respondents to report their involvements in deviant or criminal activities May be distributed to a sample of the general population or to a specific group Ask mostly closed-ended questions that produce numerical data Ask about types of offenses, personal histories, demographics, other individual-level factors, relationships etc. Advantages 1. Fata are confidential, so there ia an increased likelihood of reporting crimes 2. Very relevant source of information- from the offenders themselves 3. Much more information about the offenders than in the UCR and Victimization surveys 4. Can be linked to other existing data sources for analyses Disadvantages 1. Self report data are susceptible to miresporting 2. Social desirability bias= people may respond in ways they feel are more socially acceptable  3. Non fictional-national studies may have small sample sizes and sampling biases 4. Limited and filtered information about victims of crime Qualitative Qualitative criminologists seek-in depth narrative data and rich stories about the criminal experience Interviews: Reachers talks to offender and ask open ended questions Ethnography: Researcher observers the offender and sometimes participates in their activities (field reaserch) Unique considerations associated with qualitative research Honesty: Will criminals tell the truth Self incrimination: How do we protect our subjects' data? How do we know when we should break confidentiality Safety: how can we protect ourself in the field How can we balance immersion vs social distance in the feild Best source of Crime data None of the crime data sources are perfect Even if multiple, complementary methods are used, there will still be a “dark figure” of crime Biased sources of crime data How does the media affect our knowledge of crime? Entertainment and sensation Moral panics and news media as moral entrepreneurs “Media-sensitive” crimes Implications of Crime Data Our understanding of crime rates depends on the methods and data sources we use Building and testing criminology theories depends in accurate measurements of crime Criminal justice system policies and crime prevention strategies are informed by crime data Without high-quality data,how will we know what works Correlates of crime Correlate= a factor that is associated with another outcome that we care about Various factors can be associated with changes in crime areas without having casual or deterministic implications It is important to critically examine whether there are alternative explanations for the observed patterns between these factors and criminal outcomes A critical lens is needed to challenge arguments about inherent criminally among people of certain backgrounds Correlate #1 Age Observed Pattern: Participation in crime and frequency of delinquent behavior generally decline with age  Age ranks associated with most offending= 15,19 years old Peak arrest age for property crimes(16) and violent crimes age -crime relationship may be impacted by our data and methods -Measurements of youth crime rates is sensitive to legal,police and media influence -Youthful types of crime may just be more visible or targeted by the CJS Young people have less social power and fewer resources to avoid criminal processing and to resist deviant labels Correlate #2 Gender Observed pattern:Men commit more cirmes than women Gender is the strongest demographic predictor of criminal behavior Men make up over 80% of all arrests in the united states since 200 Higher crime rates among men tends to be universal Gender differences in crime rates depend on the type of crime Research suggests that pathway towards crime are genders with different common trajectory for men vs women what explains the gender gap Biological differences between men and women High levels of testosterone are associated with more aggression, risk taking and criminal behaviour among men Gender role socialization and reinforcement of traditional gender roles crime is compatible with masculinity, but incompatible with feminity Boys learn more violent definitions of appropriate behaviour that are reinforced with parental discipline State Paternîism protects female offenders and skews our perceptions of gendered criminality What explains the closing of the "gender gap" in offending? Increase in egalitarian social values in modern Western societies leads to more criminal opportunities for women "Role convergence hypothesis" = as women increasingly join the paid workforce and take on similar work roles as men, there will be an increase in female crime Over time, criminal behavior may be reducing among men, while it is simultaneously increasing among women Increase in egalitarian social values in modern western societies leads to more criminal opportunities for women Role convergence hypothesis = as women increasing join the paid workforce and take on similar work roles as men, there will be an increase in female crime Over time, criminal behavior may be reducing among men, while it is simultaneously increasing among women Correlate #3: Socioeconomic status Observed pattern: HIgher crime rates among those low SES Pattern may be skewed by the limitations of official UCR crime data Proposed bimodal distribution of crime rates based on levels of SES Conclusion: Lower class individuals may be overrepresented in the CJS Correlate #4: Race Observed pattern: Racial and ethnic differences in crime rates Overrepresentation of Black and Latinx americans and Indigenous Canadiens in our respective criminal justice systems Racial differences are explained in numerous ways by criminologists 1. Differential offending hypothesis vs Differential treatment hypothesis 2. Historical legacy of slavery and oppression 3. Trauma transmission model Differential offending hypothesis Actual differences between in offending patterns between racial groups Differential treatment Hypothesis Correlate #4: Race Observed differences in CJS outcomes for racial groups are a function of structural inequalities in administration of justice Police pay more attention to racial minorities CJS may be influenced by race in the course of law making and sentencing Racialized neighborhoods are subject to greater police surveiliance Historical legacy of slavery and oppression Various social institutes in the U.S. serve to enforce racial hierachies, placing a disproportinate generational burden on Black americans CJS is part of a lineage of punitive “peculiar” institutions that enforce that racial hierchary: Slavery- Jim crow laws- ghettos- mass incarceration Argument that racial diffrences in crime rates are a product of “insttional racism” Correlate #5 Location Observed pattern: Crime rates differ by geographic regions UCR data indicates more crime in urban areas with rates increasing as the size of the community increases Community characteristics may impact crime rates Increased police scrutiny in “high risk” neighborhoods A note about intersectionality Intersectionality = complex combinations of age, gender, race and SES that produce unique outcomes and experiences with crime and the CJS Consider the existence of cumulative disadvantages within the CJS Considers the relationship between identity and social power Important concept for critical criminologists Supernatural Explanations Historically crime was viewed as a violation of divine laws, requiring severe punishment (retribution) Crime is motivated by inherent evil and demonic possession (Irrationally) Barbaric punishments: Execution, torture, exorism Example is sale which trials 1692 Origins of the classical school The classical school of criminology emerged from the enlightenment movement Prominent ideas are free will, reason, rational thought Crime violates the social contract and harms society Cesare Beccaria believed that crime results from active choices toward rational self-interests Fear of punishment can reduce criminal choices by shifting the offender’s calculation about the better outcome between deviance vs. conformity Punishment should be about crime prevention Beccaria argued that the punishment ought to fit the seriousness of the crime (“proportionality” principle Punishment should only be just severe enough to shift the calculation that crime is a good decision Jeremy Bentham added that the law should reflect “the greatest good for the greatest many” (utilitarianism) Like crime, punishment also causes harm, so it is only justified if it prevents greater evil than it creates Punishment exceeding the amount needed to prevent crime is an indicator of an unjust society  Influential books published in the late 18th century critiqued the law as condoning unjust punishment Beccaria: On Crimes and Punishment (1764) Bentham: Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) Rational choice Crime is the result of an individual calculation that perceives the benefits (pleasures) of crime to outweigh the costs (pains) of getting caught and punished All criminal activity derives from rational decision-making (choice) Different calculations for different types of crimes Rational choice theory Offenders may make different rational calculations when weighing the costs and benefits of crime Accounts for situational factors and ethics, perceived opportunity, and social structure considerations Policy implication:Increase the costs of crime or make it less attractive than conformity Deterrence Deterrence = Choices to engage in criminal behaviour can be discouraged by increasing the fear of its consequences Because humans are rational, shifting perceptions of punishment can prevent or reduce criminal outcomes Both legal and social consequences can be deterrents 3 characteristics of legal punishment that influence the effectiveness of deterrence: Certainty ,Celerity (speed), and severity Specific deterrence = Personal experience with punishment should prevent repeat offending (recidivism) General deterrence = Observing punishment sets an example that should prevent others’ future criminal choices The neoclass school Classical explanations were challenged by the sociological turn in Criminology, but re-emerged in the 1970s as an opposition to rehabilitation-based criminal justice policies This re-emergence is captured within the “Neoclassical School” Modern neoclassical theories are pragmatic and suggest policies/practices aimed at changing rational calculations and reducing the availability of criminal opportunities (e.g., Routine Activity Theory) Routine activity theoruy Greater focus on the situational Factors that influence criminal calculations and impact the likelihood of victimization  3 elements must converge in time and space to facilitate a criminal situation Commonly converge during the course of our routine activities in modern society Supports situational crime prevention over “tough on crime” criminal justice policies Situational crime prevention Crime can be discouraged by decreasing the perceived availability of criminal opportunities Increase: effort, risks, shame, guilt Decrease: rewards, excuses Controls are embedded into physical and social environments to create “defensible spaces” Relies on “target hardening” strategies to change the offender’s rational calculation about crime (e.g., locks, cameras, lighting, guards, warning signs, etc.) Reduce target attractiveness, improve guardianship Origins of the positivist school Positivist criminology emerged in the 19th century as a challenge to the Classical School Disagrees that criminal behavior is a choice made by rational actors Early Positivists argued that people are born criminal and it is in their nature to engage in crime (determinism)  Assumes that there are inherent differences between criminals and non-criminals that we can isolate and measure The goal is to uncover the individual-level traits that cause crime Early potvist ideas Early positivism focused its attention on the Biological deficits that lead to criminality What is it about the biology or physiology of criminals that makes them different from non- criminals? Cesare Lombroso and The Criminal Man(1876) Founder of positivist criminology The born criminal is an “atavism” or throwback to an earlier, more primitive stage of human evolution Lombroso's reaserch Lombroso looked for patterns in the physiological differences between soldiers and prisoners He aimed to identify the abnormal traits common to born criminals, which he called “stigmata” E.g., asymmetrical face/head, large lips, twisted nose, long arms, extra fingers/toes, other “deformities”, etc. Theory of super male criminals  Hypothesis that violence among men can be explained by having a XYY chromosomal pattern Super-males” have an extra Y chromosome (extra “maleness”) that creates a strong compulsion toward violent crime Weak empirical evidence and limited scope of the theory have led to its rejection since it was first introduced in the 1960s CRITIQUES OF EARLY BIO THEORIES Early biological theories were criticized for: Promoting eugenics Neglecting sociological factors in the commission of crime Methodological weaknesses: correlation analyses, selection biases Theories are often non-testable and use tautological reasoning Discrediting these theories led to a prolonged absence of biological factors in the criminological literature Modern Biological explanations Modern biological explanations focus on aspects of biochemistry, neurophysiology, and genetics Neurophysiological explanations hypothesize that brain deficits can serve as risky pathways to crime (mixed support for poor prenatal care and head injuries) Genetic explanations hypothesize that criminality may be inherited through genes that lead to traits such as hyperactivity, aggressiveness, impulsivity (moderate support) Methods: twin studies, adoption studies, molecular genetics  There is no single “crime gene” Evolutionary perspectives on heritability have not been fully tested and there is no concrete evidence that genes causing “criminal” traits serve an evolutionary advantage Psychological Explanations Psychological explanations of crime argue that the mind is the root cause of criminal behaviors: 1.Mental health conditions as risk factors for crime 2.Psychodynamic theory: All behaviors, including crime, are based on an interaction between the conscious and unconscious aspects of our mind (id vs. ego vs. superego) 3.“Criminal” personalities (e.g., psychopathy) Biosocial criminology Modern movement emphasizing the interplay between biological and social variables in criminality (nature And nurture) Argue that biological factors (genetics) create predispositions to crime that are then activated or not by social or other environmental factors Dual hazard prediction= being raised in a neglectful or abusive family is more likely to activate the underlying biological predispositions (growing support) It is difficult to separate and measure the independent effects of biological vs. social factors in criminality Crime is influenced by both biology and the environment (weighting unknown) Current evidence does not suggest that genetics nor socialization matters more Nature and nurture are both important in different ways SOCIOLOGICAL POSITIVISM Positivism continues to be a guiding paradigm in Criminology Shift from a focus on internal factors to external social factors “Sociological positivism” suggests that there are objective qualities of the social world that we can measure and test in our theories Many theories of crime that we will discuss in this class are based on the principles of sociological positivism What is criminology Criminology=scientific study of crime and deviance “Criminology is the study of the making of laws, breaking laws and society's reaction to the breaking of laws The term criminology was coined in 1885 Raffaele Garfola Applies the scientific method and relies on empirical evidence Criminology is a diverse and multi-disciplinary field Criminology is made of mostly socioly factors These is no single dominant school of thought in Criminology Classical School (Mid 18 century) Emphasizes retinol thought and free will Individuals choose to commit crime by weighing the benefits against the cost Scholars: Beccaria(1764), Betham(1765)  This theory states that most criminals commit crimes for rational reasons Positivist school ( Late 19 to mid 20th centrey) Crime is not chosen but is caused Crime is a illness it's something that is caused and people are not choosing it, If your born a criminal you will alway be a criminal Scholars, Lombroso(1874), Hooten(1930s), Eysenck(1964) Sociology Criminology ( mid 20th century) Crime is the product of a communities “disorganized” social characteristics Comparisons of crime rates across different neighborhoods show consistently higher rates in certain areas over time Scholars, Park and Burgess(1925), shaw and Mckay(1942), Sampson(1990) Critical persepctives Conflict theories focus on economic inequality Feminist theories focus on gender inequality Critical race theories focus on racial inequality New approaches to criminology Developmental and life course theories explore criminal trajectories over time by starting vs stopping crime during one's life Integrated theories combine different explanations into complex models that account for the multifaceted nature of crime Defining Crime and Deviance Hobbes believed that our human nature requires rules to preserve social order Rousseau believed that human nature is good. But society creates complications that necessitate a social contract Conformity= Following the rules of order (“norms”) Deviance=norm-violating behavior Norms can be formal and codified(ex laws) or informal and unwritten(ex moral codes) Classification of informal norms Classification of informal norms -Mores= High degree of importance, high severity of punishment -Folkways=Lo degree of importance, low severity of punishment  Crime=violations of law -Crime is a special category of violating formal norms Types of crime White collar crime Crimes in the sweets Types of crimes in a corporate settings Fraud,counterfeiting, ponzi schemes Crimes committed by a person of high social status and occupational status White collar crime has the most damage compared to other crimes Organized crime People banning together to seek power Mafia, motorcycle gangs, Political crime They act for social and political reasons Anti abortion supporters doing vandalism for a greater good they believe in is a example Expanded police power and expanded surveillance Cybercrime Crime that is facilitated by the use of computers and internet Digital tools help us create new ways to victimize people Police Data Uniform crime reporting(UCR) system used to collect official police data on reported crimes United states(1929)- Developed by the FBI to provide police agencies with a standardized set of procedures to report their crime data Canada(1962)- Survey administered by the national Justice statistics initiative and complete annually by police agencies Crimes are Classified into formal standardized categories Aggregate crime data are reported as counts and percentages at the national, provincial/state and municipal levels UCR data are generally considered to represent “official” national and regional crime statics U.S and Canadian UCR programs initially used a simple “summary” reporting procedure -General information on the prevalence of various crime types over time and across areas They have since transitioned to using an “incident-based” reporting procedure  -More specific and detailed information on crime incidents (ex characteristics of victims/offenders, location, time of day) -Canada's most up to date version has adopted a more efficient and streamlined data reporting process for police agencies, and has included new crime types ( ex cybercrime and hate crime Crime Severity index Canada(2009) developed to standardize and weight reported crimes in terms of their impact/harm on the community Weighting crimes according to their relative severity(baesd on court sentencing data) Crimes with a higher weight (ex murder) have a larger impact on CSI CSI increased by 2.15% from 2022-2023 which reflects an increase of more sever crimes reported over the past year Police Data: advantages 1. Provides nationwide and regional comparative crime statisitcs 2. Easy to obtain the data 3. UCR data can be linked to other data sources for comprehensive analyes How do we recognize “deviance” when we see it Deviance is universal, but relative and situational There are four main perspectives on the deviance question 1.Statistical rarity OBJECTIVE 2.Social Harm 3.Normamative violation SUBJECTIVE 4.Societal reaction Statistical Rarity Limitations: Criteria for rare are ambiguous Common things may be unacceptable Some rare things may be acceptable Social Harm Does it cause bodily or emotional harm to others Does it cause harm to oneself Does it cause harm to the functioning society Does it threaten our understanding of the world and our place in it Limitations: Harm is subjective and varies over time and place Harm can be exaggerated by moral panic Normative violation Deviance is any behavior that violates social norms Limitations: Lack of consensus over normative standards There can be competing norms (legal norm that should you should not duel, social norm that you can let your honor be disrespected) Not all normative violations are treated as deviance Societal Reaction Deviance is defined by the social response it evokes Reflects the importance of dominant moral codes in a society(ex how many people condemn the act,how strong is their disapproval, how much power do they have) Social constructionism: who defines what is deviance  The role of power: Politicians,scientists,religious institutions,commercial enterprises(moral entrepreneurs) Social Construction of Deviance Process of constructing deviance: Description: Create and apply a label Evaluation: Make a negative judgment about the label Prescription: apply social control to the labeled This process serves as the basis for labeling theories of crime: Constructing and controlling “outsiders”(becker,1963) Final definition of deviance Deviance is presumed behavior that defies social expectations that are made and enforced by people with influence(power) and have been applied to particular people or groups in particular situations Crime typologies Crime can be classified or categorized in various ways: Legal classification: Differentiating crime by seriousness and harmfulness Target-based Classifications: who is harmed Other classifications: based on context,motivations or behaviors Summary offense=less serious criminal behavior Criminal code of canada enforces punishment as a fine(