Indus Valley Civilization PDF

section 1:"the first civilizations arose near rivers. One such civilization was I in India. Its people farmed along the Indus River. Farmers grew plenty of food, and populations grew. In time, some of the people settled in towns and cities and formed governments. The Indian Subcontinent Geographer...

section 1:"the first civilizations arose near rivers. One such civilization was I in India. Its people farmed along the Indus River. Farmers grew plenty of food, and populations grew. In time, some of the people settled in towns and cities and formed governments. The Indian Subcontinent Geographers divide the continent of Asia into regions. One of those regions is South Asia. It looks like a huge triangle jutting out into the Indian Ocean. Today, it includes the countries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal, and Bhutan. India is by far the biggest country in the region. For much of its history, all of South Asia was known simply as India. It is still called the Indian subcontinent. A subcontinent is a large landmass that is set apart from the rest of the continent. The Indian subcontinent stretches almost 2,000 miles from north to south. In some places, it is nearly as wide from east to west. The subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the towering Himalayas and Hindu Kush, two mountain ranges to the north.River Systems The Indus River flows across the northwestern part of the subcontinent. The Indus forms part of a river system, or a main river and all of the other rivers and streams that drain into it. These rivers start as melting snow and ice in the mountains and flow to the sea. India's first civilization grew around the valley of the Indus River. This civilization developed in an area that is dry most of the year. When the river flooded, it left behind rich soil. River water let farmers harvest plentiful crops. These crops fed the cities of the civilization. To the east of the Indus, the Ganges River flows more than 1,500 miles across the northern part of the subcontinent. Its floods created a huge, fertile plain good for farming. The rich Ganges Plain became the center of another ancient Indian civilization. Climate Much of the Indian subcontinent has a tropical climate. For much of the year, the land bakes under a high, hot sun. Seasonal winds, known as monsoons, help shape life in this region. In the winter, dry monsoon winds blow from the land to the sea. Little rain falls. In the summer, this pattern reverses. Wet winds from the ocean blow onto the land. They bring rain, which provides water for crops. They also bring a welcome break from the intense heat. For much of India, agriculture depends on the summer monsoon. If the rains come on time, all is well. If the rains come late or not at all, crops die and people may starve. An Advanced Civilization Farmers began growing crops in hills near the Indus river system around 7000 B.C. With a steady food supply. the population grew. After 3000 B.C, cities began to develop on the broad plains of the Indus Valley. By about 2500 B.C., these cities were the centers of the advanced Indus Valley civilization. However, by around 1700 B.C., the civilization had largely disappeared. Archacologists have discovered most of what we know about the Indus Valley civilization. In the 1920s, they discovered the ruins of two great cities: Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro. Since then, archaeologists have found more than 1,000 other towns and villages from this civilization. Technology Indus Valley cities were well planned and organized. The people of the Indus Valley built thick walls around their cities. They also built huge raised mounds of carth and brick in their cities During times of flooding, these mounds remained above water. Many houses in these cities had a bathroom and toilet. Wastewater from houses flowed into brick-lined sewage chan-nels. These were the world's first citywide sewer systems. A trash chute in many houses led to a bin in the street. Many of the achievements of the Indus Valley people showed an advanced knowledge of mathematics. Their cities were built with wide, straight streets in a grid pattern. The Indus Valley civilization had an advanced system of weights and measurements using multiples of ten, like the modern metric system Farming the Indus Valley The dry Indus Valley could not always depend on the monsoon rains. Therefore, Indus Valley farmers built irrigation channels and ditches. These brought river water to the wheat and barley fields. Some scholars think that these farmers stored their surplus crops in a granary, or special building used to hold grain. They may have been the first farmers to grow cotton for making cloth. Indus Valley farmers also raised cattle, sheep, goats, and chickens for food. They used oxen, or cattle, to pull carts. Animals seem to have been important to the Indus Valley people. They carved wooden animals and painted pictures of animals on pottery. Trade The Indus Valley environment was rich in resources for trade. Indus Valley jewelers made beautiful jewelry from precious stones. Traders sold this jewelry as far away as Mesopotamia. Traders sold cotton cloth woven in the Indus Valley They also sold teak, a valuable wood from a tree that grows in India. Indus Valley cities prospered from trade Indus Valley traders used stone scals with writing to identify their goods. They stamped their seals on soft clay squares attached to their goods. Accurate weights and measures helped promote trade. Sumerian writers mentioned trade with people who probably came from the Indus Valley. Trade spread ideas between these two civilizations.Indus Valley Mysteries Artifacts and ruins of many buildings have been found in the Indus Valley. They provide a lot of information. But scholars still have many questions about this ancient civilization. They want to know more about its rulers, religion, and writing. They wonder why it disappeared and where its people went. Government and Religion Clearly, the people of the Indus Valley were well organized. Their cities show a surprising level of planning. They all used a common system of weights and measures. These facts suggest that the Indus Valley people had a strong central government. Yet no royal statues or tombs have been found. This makes it seem unlikely that kings ruled the Indus Valley. Based on the available evidence, it just isn't possible to know for sure what kind of government the Indus Valley had. Most cities had a huge citadel, or fortified area. The walled citadel was built on a raised platform of earth and brick that could have protected it from floodwaters or attackers. Scholars are not sure, but the citadel may have been a center of govern-ment, religion, or both. Religion is another part of the Indus Valley civilization about which little is known. Scholars have found no obvious temples and no clear sign of priests. However, some Indus Valley statues look like gods worshiped in Hinduism, a religion that developed later in this region. Also, some Indus Valley carvings look like people meditating, an important practice in Hinduism today. Writing Scholars have not yet discovered how to read the symbols found on the stone seals and pottery of the Indus Valley. There are too few examples of each symbol to be sure of its meaning. Most experts think that these marks are a form of writing. However, they do not know if these markings are names, records of sales, or something else. Disappearance The greatest mystery is what caused this civilization to disappear. Sometime before 1700 B.C., the Indus Valley people began to abandon their cities. The civilization declined rapidly after that. No one knows why. There are many possible explanations. Some evidence suggests that standing water in drains may have bred mosquitos that spread disease and weakened Indus Valley populations. Indus Valley people may also have stripped forests of trees, leaving them without wood for building or fuel. A lack of forest cover could have caused severe floods that damaged Indus Valley cities. Their cattle may have overgrazed the land, leaving bare soil. Smaller herds could have led to starvation. Some historians think that climate change may have brought an end to the civilization. Years of drought could have made it impossible to feed city dwellers. They would either have starved or moved away. Foreign invasion might also have weakened the civilization. Nobody knows for sure what happened, but it would take a thousand years for a new civilization to appear on the Indian subcontinent. Section 2:By 1500 bc another group of people were living in the indus valley. They called themselves aryans. This meant the noble ones" in their language. Scholars often call them Indo-Aryans, after the language that they spoke. The Aryans introduced a new social structure. The Aryans also brought a new religion with them that had many gods. They expressed their beliefs in hymns and holy scriptures known as Vedas. For this reason, this period of Indian history is called the Vedic age. The Origins of the Indo-Aryans Historians have taken different views on the origins of the Indo-Aryans. In the past, many historians accepted the Aryan invasion theory. This theory held that the Aryans were nomadic warriors who crossed the mountains into India. They rode horse-drawn chariots and used iron weapons to defeat the local people. Then they settled in the Indus Valley and spread to other parts of India. Others have argued that the Aryans were not invaders. Instead, they believe Aryans were India's original inhabitants. Supporters of this view say that if the Indo-Aryans came from a region outside of India, the Vedas would refer to it. The Vedas, however, do not make any mention of such a place. Most recent scholars believe that neither of the above theories is correct. These scholars propose a third theory. They suggest that the Aryans were once nomads raising cattle and horses on the dry grasslands of what is now Afghanistan and Central Asia. Over many years, they migrated into India with their livestock. In India, they mixed with local people and adopted local beliefs. Local people adopted the mixed Aryan language and religion and called themselves Aryans, too. Over time, people across a large part of India came to see themselves as Aryan. The Vedas After settling in India, the Aryans composed the Vedas. Each Veda is a collection of hundreds of sacred hymns. Priests memorized and sang or chanted these verses during ceremonies. The Vedas called upon people to make offerings to their gods. Typical offerings might be barley, butter, or milk. For a thousand years, Indians passed the Vedas down by word of mouth. They sang or chanted them in an Indo-Aryan language called Sanskrit, which is a distant relative of English. Today, Sanskrit remains a language of sacred literature. Sanskrit is the ancestor of many modern Indian languages. Around 500 B.C., Indians relearned the art of writing. They began to collect the Vedas and put them into writing. The best known of the Vedas is the Rig Veda. It includes more than 1,000 hymns. Most of them praise Aryan gods and goddesses representing natural forces such as the sky, sun, and fire. Aryan Life The Rig Veda and the other sacred texts provide a record not only of the Aryans' gods but also of the people themselves. Most of what we know about Aryan life on the Indian subcontinent comes from the Vedas. The earliest Aryans lived as nomadic herders. They raised cattle, horses, goats, and sheep. Cattle held special importance for them since the herds provided both food and clothing. Early on, the Aryans measured their wealth by the size of their cattle herds. After many years of living in India and mixing with local farmers, Aryans began to take up farming. No longer nomadic, they settled into villages and began to plant crops and graze cattle on pastures around their villages. The local people taught them how to grow crops as well as many other skills. The Aryans were also skilled warriors. They charged into battle in their speedy, horse-drawn, two-wheeled chariots. They went to war with other nearby peoples. They also fought among themselves. The Vedas show that the Aryans found joy in their day-to-day lives. They loved music and dancing. They held chariot races and enjoyed gambling. They also had human weaknesses. The following passage from a hymn in the Rig Veda describes one family's reaction to a man who gambled too much: 66 My wife rejects me; her mother hates me; For a man in such trouble there is no pity: 'I think a gambling man is no more useful Than an old horse that is up for sale." -Rig Veda, adapted from translations by R. T.H. Griffith and A.A. MacDonell The Growth of Vedic Civilization Over hundreds of years, Aryan culture slowly spread eastward across the humid and fertile Ganges Plain. The Aryans carved farms and villages from the forests. Some villages grew into towns and citics. At first, the Aryans were divided into clans, or groups of people who believe that they share a common ancestor. Each clan had a chief. Later, clans joined together to form republics. These republics were not true democracies, but clan leaders made decisions in an assembly. Finally, powerful leaders gained control of some republics and made themselves kings, By 500 B.C, more than a dozen kingdoms and republics covered the Ganges Plain. The Caste System Over time, India developed a social structure based on caste. A caste is a fixed social class into which a person is born. People inherited their caste from their parents. They stayed in that caste for their entire lives. Members of different castes did not usually mix socially. They were not allowed to eat together and rarely married across caste lines. This social structure is known as a caste system. Two Kinds of Caste Indians grouped people into castes in two different ways. The most basic grouping was by occupation. The term for an occupation-based caste is jati, meaning "birth group." Some scholars think that these castes began as extended families who may have had a family business or occupation. There are hundreds of jatis in India today. These jatis were grouped into large caste groupings. The Vedas identify four varnas, or caste groupings based on religious status. Priests, known as Brahmins, were the highest varna. Next came the Kshatriyas, or the rulers and warriors. Below them were the Vaishyas, or landowners, bankers, and merchants. At the bottom were the Sudras, who did farm work and other manual work. Men in the three highest varnas were considered "twice-born." First, they experienced physical birth. Then, after they had studied Sanskrit and the Vedas, they had a spiritual birth. Being twice-born meant that these men could practice the Vedic religion. They had the right to take part in certain religious ceremonies. This was a great honor. The lowest varna was the Sudras. The Sudras worked in the fields tending crops, as laborers, or as servants for people in higher varnas. Later, a caste grouping below the Sudras developed. People in other castes called its members untouchables. Known today as Dalits, these people had to do dirty jobs that no one else wanted, such as cleaning toilets or butchering animals. Members of the higher varnas thought of themselves as "pure. They avoided contact with untouchables for fear of being made unclean. In modern India, treating Dalits as untouchable is against the law. Evolution of the Caste System Scholars are not sure how the caste system developed. They aren't sure whether the status-based varnas or the occupation-based jatis developed first. The system probably developed over hundreds of years as the Aryans settled into villages. As they settled, they developed specialized jobs for priests, warriors, merchants, and farmworkers. At first, caste may have been mainly based on a person's occupation or family membership. Children might have been able to move into a different caste than their parents. In time, castes seem to have become more rigid. Each caste was given a particular status. People were born into a caste and could not leave it. In theory, Indian castes never gained members except by birth and never lost members except by death. In fact, the evidence suggests that families could sometimes move from one varna to another. Foreign invaders sometimes became Kshatriyas. Marriages across caste lines may also have occurred. In time, the caste system became the basis for India's social structure. The system brought both costs and benefits. For instance, the system limited peoples individual freedom. The patterns of their lives were fixed at birth. However, some believe that the caste system helped India develop. They feel that it brought stability to Indian society. Indian goods became famous because caste members perfected their skills. The system also allowed different groups to follow their own beliefs. In India today, the law forbids caste discrimination. People's jobs no longer depend on their caste alone. Brahmins or Kshatriyas may work with their hands. Dalits may work as professionals. Key ideas Most historians believe that Indo-Aryan nomads entered the Indian subcontinent over many years and mixed with local people. Sacred scriptures known as the Vedas teach us about the Aryan religion and customs. A caste system emerged in India dividing Indians into groups based on birth and occupation. Vocab: Veda, caste, brahmin, kshatriya, vaishya, sudra, dalit Section 3:induism is one of the oldest religions in the world. It began Him india during the Vedic age in a form called Brahmanism. Then it slowly grew and changed into Hinduism. The Roots of Hinduism For most of the past 2,000 years, Hinduism has been the main religion of India. In fact, the word Hinduism means "the religion of the people of India." Vedic Age Beliefs and Practices As you have learned, the Vedas are India's oldest religious texts. Brahmins, or priests, in the Vedic age memorized these works and passed them on by word of mouth. Around 500 B.C., they wrote them down. The Vedas contain hymns to many gods. They also describe rituals to please the gods. These rituals often involved sacrifices, or offerings, of animals or food to specific gods, such as Agni, the god of fire. Brahmanism Scholars call the religion of the Vedic age Brahmanism. Brahmanism was a religion based on priests and rituals, particularly sacrifices to the gods. Brahmins studied the Vedas. Brahmins were also the only ones who were allowed to perform the rituals. They believed that they had to perform rituals perfectly, and that any little mistake would anger the gods. This gave the Brahmins great power in early Indian society. The Evolution of Hinduism Beginning about 500 B.C., as Indians adapted to town and village life, Indian beliefs began to change. The old gods became less important. People began to doubt that carrying out precise rituals was as important as the priests claimed. Other people began asking questions such as: Why are we born? How should we live? What happens to us when we die? Hinduism evolved from Indians' efforts to answer these difficult questions. New Teachings To find those answers, thinkers and teachers known as gurus left their homes to live in the forest, to think, and to talk about religious ideas. In a sense, these gurus and their students were founders of Hinduism. Their ideas survive in writings known as the Upanishads (oo PAN uh shadz). The Upanishads made connections between heavenly forces and people's lives. Alongside the Vedas, the Upanishads became Hindu holy scriptures. The oldest Upanishads date to around 800 or 700 B.C. Indian thinkers continued to produce them for several hundred years. The Upanishads helped connect people to the emerging Hindu religion. Only Brahmins were supposed to interpret the Vedas. But Indians of all castes could study the Upanishads. These sacred writings dealt with questions of life and death or right and wrong that concern all people. Epic Poems Everyone could also learn and study two very important epic poems. An epic poem is a long story of heroes told in verse. Both of these poems took shape within a few hundred years of A.D. 1. These epic poems are the Ramayana (rah MAH yuh nuh) and the Mahabharata (muh hah BAH rah tuh). They helped explain how people should live their lives as Hindus. The Ramayana is the story of a king named Rama and his beautiful wife, Sita. This is the epic remembered by Amala in the story at the beginning of this chap-ter. Sita is kidnapped by the demon king Ravana. His niece, the demon Trijata, protects Sita. Eventually, Rama rescues Sita. This epic offers moral lessons about right and wrong. One such lesson is the importance of loyalty and respect.The Mahabharata may be the world's longest poem. It is 200,000 lines long. It tells the story of two families at war for control of a kingdom. Like the Ramayana, it deals with moral issues. These include the conflict between loyalty to family and duty. The most sacred section of the Mahabharata is the Bhagavad-Gita (BUG uh vud GEE tuh). This means "Song of the Lord." Some scholars consider the Bhagavad-Gita to be Hinduism's most important religious text. This text deals with key Hindu beliefs. These beliefs have to do with the nature of the soul, of life, and of God and the importance of various Hindu practices. Beliefs About God Hinduism is like a great river. Over thousands of years, many beliefs and traditions have flowed into it. As a result, Hindus may have different practices. But Hindus share certain basic beliefs. The Upanishads contain two beliefs that lie at the heart of Hinduism. The first is that there is one supreme cosmic con-sciousness, spiritual force, or God known as Brahman. The Upanishads teach that all of the gods that Indians worship are forms of Brahman. Brahman, they say, is the source of all things. Many Hindus worship individual gods or goddesses as forms of Brahman. Some Hindus worship Brahman as Vishnu. Others worship Brahman as Shiva. Still others worship Brahman as the goddess Shakti. These gods and goddesses may have other named forms. For example, the god Krishna is a form of Vishnu. The second core Hindu belief is that every person is born with a soul. This soul is also a form of Brahman. According to the Upanishads: 66 This soul of mine within the heart is smaller than a grain of rice.... This soul of mine within the heart is greater than the earth,... greater than the sky.... This soul of mine within the heart, this is Brahman. 29 —The Thirteen Principal Upanishads Beliefs About Life Hindu scriptures such as the Upanishads and the Bhagavad-Gita also teach important Hindu beliefs about life. Reincarnation and Karma Hinduism teaches that when people die, most will undergo reincarnation. Reincarnation is the rebirth of a soul in a new body. In the Bhagavad-Gita, the god Krishna explains the process of reincarnation to Arjuna, the hero of the Mahabharata: 66 As a man discards worn-out clothes to put on new and different ones, so the embodied self (soul) discards its worn-out bodies to take on other new ones. 29 -Bhagavad-Gita The law of karma determines how a person is reborn. Karma is the effect of a person's actions in this and in previous lives. Hindus believe that bad karma— evil deeds-will bring rebirth into a lower caste or even as a lower animal. Good karma brings rebirth into a higher caste. Four Goals Hindus believe that people have four basic goals in life. People should pursue all four. But not everyone achieves all of these goals in one lifetime. The first goal is doing what is right. For Hindus, dharma is a person's duty or what is right for him or her. Dharma includes the duties that come with one's caste or one's age or position in life. Dharma also includes the rule of ahimsa, or avoiding doing harm to any living thing. Following dharma brings good karma. Violating dharma brings bad karma. The second goal is striving for well-being, or earning a livelihood with dig-nity. This goal can involve making a good living and raising a family. It can involve starting or running an honest business. However, Hindus say, material well-being by itself does not bring true happiness. The third goal is pleasure. This includes physical pleasures such as eating good food or taking a hot bath. However, seeking nothing but pleasure, Hindus believe, can leave a person feeling empty. The final goal is moksha, or liberation from reincarnation. When this happens, a person's soul becomes one with Brahman. For Hindus, the purpose of human life is to achieve moksha. A soul that achieves moksha is free from want, fear, and pain. It lives forever in a state of joy.Three Paths to Moksha Hinduism lays out three different paths to moksha. These paths are all forms of yoga, traditionally defined as a way of seeking moksha. The first path is the way of knowledge. The second is the way of works. The third is the way of devotion. Hindus may try to follow all three paths. Traditionally, Brahmins chose the way of knowledge. For a person following the way of knowledge, moksha comes with a true understanding of one's soul and its oneness with Brahman-or God. The Upanishads say that such understanding does not come easily. The way of works means carrying out the religious rituals and duties that will improve one's karma. Most Hindus have chosen this path. To follow the way of works, Hindus must carry out duties within their family. They also offer prayers and food to the gods. Those who do good deeds without expecting any reward are especially praised. The way of devotion is also known as the path of love. People on this path devote themselves to loving God. For most Hindus, following the path of love means worshiping one of the Hindu gods or goddesses. These gods and goddesses have human forms and personalities. People can love them as they might love a parent or child. The way of devotion takes many forms. People on this path may repeat their god's name all day long. They may present offerings to their god at a temple. They may travel to sites sacred to their god. In all of these ways, Hindus try to move closer to God in their hearts.The Impact of Hinduism More than a billion people live in India today. About 80 percent of them follow Hinduism. The rest follow other religions. Hindus also live and worship in many places outside of India. The spread of Hinduism has had a lasting impact on India and on the world. The Spread of Hinduism Long ago, the people of India lived under many separate rulers. They spoke many different languages. They worshiped many different gods. Yet, most Indians still became Hindus. Several things helped the growth of Hinduism in India. One was Hinduism's flexibility. Because Hinduism views all gods as forms of a single, supreme God, it can accept the worship of new gods. People did not have to give up their old religion when they became Hindus. Instead, Hinduism adopted their traditions and gods or viewed their gods as forms of existing Hindu gods. Hinduism also did not require regular attendance at religious services. Instead, Hindus could pray or make offerings to the gods at a local temple during special celebrations or whenever it was conve-nient. They could also pray or make offerings at shrines in their homes. A shrine is a place of worship that is often dedicated to a sacred object or being. So no matter where Indians went, they could easily practice their religion.Over time, Hinduism spread to other lands. For more than a thousand years after a.d. 1, Indian traders and priests carried Hinduism to Southeast Asia. Hinduism left a lasting influence on countries such as Thailand and Indonesia, where epic poems such as the Ramayana remain popular. Today, most people on the Indonesian island of Bali are Hindus. Indians also took Hinduism with them when they moved across the seas. Many migrated to Great Britain, the United States, and Canada. More than a million Hindus now live in the United States. Hindu Traditions Today Hindus live in some 150 countries. But most Hindus still live in India. Hindu traditions remain an important part of Indian life. For example, Hindu festivals draw huge crowds. One festival takes place on the Ganges River. It is one of India's holiest sites. Every year, millions of Indians line the banks of the Ganges and bathe in its waters. They believe that those waters can wash away bad karma and cure disease. Hinduism's openness to all religions has shaped India's political system. It guarantees religious freedom. Hinduism has also influenced India's art and literature. Beautiful carvings of gods and goddesses decorate the walls of majestic Hindu temples. The temples are places of worship. But they also serve as centers of art, music, and dance. The Mahabharata and the Ramayana were India's first great literature. They have inspired other literature for hundreds of years. In India, comic books and movies still retell their stories today. section 4:Buddhis, like Hinduiem, arose in sucient india. Buddhist isA religion based on the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama (sid DAHR tuh GOW tuh muh), an Indian spiritual leader. Siddhartha became known as the Buddha (BOO duh). We call his followers Buddhists. The Life of the Buddha Scholars know few hard facts about the Buddha. The story of his life comes mainly from Buddhist texts. Those texts include the teachings of the Buddha, which his followers memorized and passed down by word of mouth. But they also include many legends. A Pampered Youth Siddhartha Gautama was probably born during the 400s B.C. in what is now Nepal. A Hindu prince, he was raised in wealth and luxury. According to legend, his mother dreamed that a white elephant came down to her from heaven. Based on the dream, a prophet predicted that the child would grow up to be a wandering holy man. This disturbed Siddhartha's father. He wanted his son to grow up to be a ruler. To keep Siddhartha from becoming a holy man, his father shielded him from everything unpleasant or disturbing. The prince never saw anyone who was poor, sad, or sick. When he rode out of the palace in his chariot, guards traveled ahead of him to clear beggars and sick people from the streets. Legends say that one day when Siddhartha was about 29, he rode out of the palace without any guards. During that ride, Siddhartha saw an old, bent, toothless man leaning on a stick. On a second ride, Siddhartha saw a man shrunken by disease. On a third, the prince saw a dead man. Sid-dhartha was shocked. He realized that he too faced old age, sickness, and death. A few days later, Siddhartha rode out of the palace again. He came upon a fourth sight, a wandering holy man. The holy man was homeless and owned noth-ing. Still, he seemed content. Siddhartha decided to search for the same sense of peace that the holy man showed. A Search for Truth That night, he cut his hair and traded his rich clothing for the simple robe of a religious seeker. He set out to find the truth about life, suffering, and death. Siddhartha began his search by studying with Hindu gurus. They taught him that life was a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Then he joined a band of religious ascetics. Ascetics deny themselves physical comforts to seck a spiritual goal. For five years, Siddhartha wore scratchy clothes and fasted, or went without food, for long periods. He lost weight and became very weak. After six years of self denial, he realized going to such extremes was not the path to truth. Finding Enlightenment Siddhartha renewed his search. One day Siddhartha sat down under a fig tree to meditate. To meditate means to calm or clear the mind, often by focusing on a single object. The fig tree would come to be known as the Bodhi Tree, or Tree of Knowledge. According to legend, Siddhartha meditated under the tree for 49 days and nights. During this time, he came to understand the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Finally, Siddhartha reached an awareness that freed him from his ties to the world. He entered a new life free of suffering. He had, at last, achieved enlightenment a state of perfect wisdom. Siddhartha had become the Buddha, which means "the Enlightened One." According to Buddhist texts, the Buddha had freed himself from the "wheel of existence." He could have enjoyed freedom from the world's suffering. Instead, he went back into the world to teach others what he had learned. For the next 45 years, the Buddha traveled across India sharing his message. He attracted many followers and students. He trained some of them to be teachers and religious leaders. The Buddha died at about the age of 80. According to legend, his dying words to his followers were these: 66 This is my last advice to you. All.. things in the world are changeable. They are not lasting. Work hard to gain your own salvation.' -Rev. Siridhamma, Life of the Buddha Buddhist Beliefs Buddhists believe that when the Buddha gained enlightenment, he had a flash of insight. He understood why people suffer. He also saw how people could escape the cycle of death and rebirth. The Buddha accepted the Hindu idea of karma-the idea that a person's actions have consequences in this or in future lives. However, the Buddha did not accept the Hindu idea of a permanent soul. He believed that a "self" might be reborn in a new body, but he thought that the "self" was an illusion. He believed that it would disappear and cease to exist when a person achieved enlightenment. The Buddha moved even further away from other Hindu beliefs. For example, the Buddha did not believe in the existence of any god. He also did not accept the caste system. The Buddha believed that the good and bad actions of people were more important than caste. The Buddha believed in following what he called the Middle Way. The Middle Way The Buddha had lived in luxury, as a wealthy prince. He had also lived in poverty, as an ascetic. One was "a life given to pleasures." The other was a life of suffering. Neither way of life had led him to enlightenment. To gain enlightenment, the Buddha advised people to follow a Middle Way. That way of life called for accepting four truths. The Four Noble Truths These Four Noble Truths were among the insights the Buddha had when he achieved enlightenment under the Bodhi Tree. The First Noble Truth is that all of life involves suffering. Birth, sickness, old age, and death bring suffering. The Second Noble Truth is that wanting or desiring things for oneself causes suffering. Not all desires are bad. It is not wrong to desire the happiness of others. However, selfish desires lead to suffering. The Third Noble Truth is that people can end their suffering. The way to do this is to give up all selfish desires. The Fourth Noble Truth is that there is a way to overcome selfish desires. The way to overcome those desires is to follow the Eightfold Path. The Eightfold Path was another of the Buddha's insights. By following this path, he believed, people could end their desires and suffering. The Buddha taught that this path was open to anyone. People of any caste could follow it.The Eightfold Path The Eightfold Path takes its name from its eight steps. These steps lead to Three Qualities. The first two steps are Right Belief and Right Purpose. They involve preparing one's mind for spiritual growth. These steps produce the first of the Three Qualities, wisdom. The next three steps are Right Speech, Right Conduct, and Right Livelihood (or profession). These steps call for taking charge of one's behavior. They include respect for all living things and compassion for others. These steps produce the quality of morality, or right action. The last three steps are Right Effort, Right Mindfulness (awareness of one's thoughts), and Right Meditation or Con-centration. They help train the mind to gain enlightenment. The third quality is the same as the eighth step-meditation. Reaching Nirvana The goal of a person who follows the Eightfold Path is to reach nirvana. Nirvana is a state of blissful peace without desire or suffering. Those who reach nirvana are at peace with themselves. They are also freed from having to go through reincarnation. A person can reach nirvana without dying but will not be reborn after dying. Some Buddhists believe that nirvana always brings enlightenment. Others believe that enlightenment is a form of wisdom that sometimes follows nirvana. The Spread of Buddhism For hundreds of years, the Buddha's followers memorized his teachings. After many years, they wrote those teachings down. Those written teachings make up the sacred scriptures of Buddhism today. Different branches of Buddhism accept different collections of these scriptures. However, all Buddhists acept the Four Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path. Monasteries and Missionaries As the Buddha preached, he gained many followers. At first they followed him from place to place. After a while, the Buddha found places for them to stay during the rainy season. These became Buddhist monasteries, or religious communities.The most devoted Buddhists lived in monasteries. There they had time to study and meditate. The Buddha urged his followers to carry his teachings to all corners of Earth. A person who spreads religious ideas is a missionary. After the Buddha died, Buddhist missionaries, or people who seek to spread their religion, first carried Buddhism across India and to Sri Lanka. Later, missionaries carried his teachings throughout Asia. Some traveled north to Central Asia. From Central Asia, missionaries followed trade routes east into China. From China, Buddhism spread to Korea and Japan. Buddhism arrived later in Tibet. Two Schools As Buddhism spread, its followers split into two major branches, or sects. The two branches share basic beliefs. But they see the Buddha's life and teachings differently. One branch is Theravada Buddhism (thehr uh vAH duh). This sect focuses on the wisdom of the Buddha. Members think that the Buddhas greatest achievement was his enlightenment and entry into nirvana. Mahayana Buddhism (mah huh YAH nuh) is the other branch. It focuses on the Buddha's compassion. For its mem-bers, the Buddha's greatest achievement was returning from nirvana to share his wisdom out of compassion for others. Its members also revere, or hold sacred, Bodhisattvas (boh dih SUT vuz), or beings who have gained enlightenment and, out of compassion, try to help others. The Legacy of Buddhism Today, there are about 400 million Buddhists. Most live in Asia. Theravada Buddhism is the main religion of Sri Lanka, Myanmar (or Burma), Thailand, and Cambodia. Mahayana Buddhism is widespread in Bhutan, Vietnam, China and Taiwan, Mongolia, the Koreas, and Japan. More than 2 million Buddhists live in the United States. Although few Bud dhists remain in India, the religion's birthplace, the Buddha's teachings made a lasting impact on Hinduism. Buddhism has inspired beautiful art and architecture. It has been a source of wisdom even for some non-Buddhists.