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Comprehensive Exam Reviewer Intro to Radiologic Technology CHAPTER I – HEALTH CARE ENVIRONMENT Health System – also referred to as health care system or as healthcare system. Organization of people, institutions, and res...

Comprehensive Exam Reviewer Intro to Radiologic Technology CHAPTER I – HEALTH CARE ENVIRONMENT Health System – also referred to as health care system or as healthcare system. Organization of people, institutions, and resources that deliver health care services to meet health needs of target populations. Healthcare Settings – settings include but are not limited to acute-care hospitals, long- term care facilities. 5 PRIMARY METHODS OF FUNDING HEALTH SYSTEM 1. General taxation to the state, county or municipality 2. National Health Insurance 3. Voluntary or private health insurance 4. Out-of-pocket payments 5. Donations to charities PRIMARY CARE – acts as first point of contact or consultation for all patients within a health care system. ✓ Primary Care services are usually available at Rural Health Units (RHU). ✓ Deals with preventive care, performing strategies and interventions that will promote optimal health for the patient and well-being of the general public. ✓ Include maternal and child health services. Decentralized – referred to devolve set up of Philippines Health Care system. Health workers no longer report to the DOH but report to their corresponding local chief. Local-Government Unit (LGU) – each level is referred to LGUs. January 1993 – Implementation of Decentralization with the transfer of funding, facilities, and staff to some 1600 LGUs, as specified in the 1991 Local Government Code. Internal Revenue Allotment (IRA) – main funding source of LGUs SECONDARY CARE – usually provided by medical specialists and other medical professionals to whom a primary care professional has referred to. ✓ It is associated with hospital-based care although not all secondary care physicians practice in a hospital setting. ✓ Usually, cases referred to secondary care level have been filtered out by the primary care health professionals and cases referred to this level usually require a more specialized type of service. ✓ Unlike primary care therefore, secondary care is more focused in its form of service and type of patients.  ✓ The types of services provided are more complex in nature than the ones being provided at the primary level. TERTIARY CARE – a more specialized form of health care. ✓ Services are far more advanced considering that the medical cases referred to this level are far more complex. ✓ Patients being catered to this level are fewer than those compared to Primary and Secondary Care. Health Care Team – a wide array of specialists makes up the health care team. Allied Health – a term that includes all the health-related disciplines except for nursing and the MODVOPP careers. o MODVOPP – medicine, osteopathy, dentistry, veterinary medicine, optometry, pharmacy, and podiatry Technologist – general term that applies to individual skilled in a practical art. ✓ Applies knowledge to practical and theoretical problems in the field. Technician – a term that applies to a person who performs procedures that require attention to technical detail. Allied Health Professionals – health care professions distinct from nursing, medicine, and pharmacy. ✓ Work in health care teams to make the health care system function by providing range of diagnostic, technical, therapeutic and direct patient care and support services. Physician - primary care providers who promote the optimal health of their patients and who provide for patients care during an illness. ✓ Leader of the clinical team and the major agent working on behalf of the patient. o Medical Doctor (MD) – generally finished baccalaureate degree program with a science major such as biology or chemistry and then complete 4 years of medical course. o Doctor of Osteopathy (DO) – have education like MDs. In addition to learning the important concepts of medicine, Dos are trained to do manipulations of muscle and bones as a part of healing process. BRANCHES OF MEDICINE: o Anesthesiology – study of the use of medication to cause loss of sensation during surgery. o Cardiology – study of diseases of the cardiovascular system o Family practice – study of diseases in patients of all ages o Geriatrics – study of diseases of older adults o Gynecology – study of disease of the female reproductive system o Internal Medicine – study of diseases of the internal organs of the chest and abdomen o Neurology – study of disease of the brain and nervous system  o Obstetrics – study of pregnancy and childbirth o Oncology – study of treatment of tumors o Orthopedics – study of diseases of muscle and bones o Pediatrics – study of diseases of children o Radiology – study of the use of x-rays and radioactive substances to diagnose and treat diseases. o Surgery – study of the use of operative procedures to treat diseases. o Urology - study of diseases of the urinary system NURSING – provides direct patient care, typically under the direction of physicians. ✓ Classified as nursing assistants, licensed practical nurses, (LPNs), or registered nurse (RNs) Nurse Practitioner – performs physical examinations, orders and interprets some tests, and in some states prescribes medications. Nurse Midwife – provides perinatal care and can deliver infants under the supervision of an obstetrician. Nurse Anesthetist – provides anesthesia under the supervision of an anesthesiologist. DIAGNOSTICS SERVICES – perform tests or evaluations that aid the physician in determining the presence or absence of a disease or condition. Electrocardiographic Technicians – operate equipment that records the electrical impulses of the heart. Electroencephalographic Technologists – operate equipment that records the electrical impulses of the brain. Medical Technologist – works in laboratory performing tests and analyzing results. ✓ Several areas of specialization exist in the laboratory, including hematology, microbiology, clinical chemistry, immunology, and blood banking. Medical Laboratory Technician – generally works under the supervision of the MT or physician to perform basic laboratory tests in all various departments. THERAPEUTIC SERVICES Therapists – provide services designed to help patients overcome some form of physical or psychological disability. Occupational Therapists – teach useful skills to patients with physical or emotional illnesses. Physical Therapists – help restore muscle strength and coordination through exercise and the use of special devices such as braces or crutches. Respiratory Therapist – help treat patients with breathing difficulties. HOSPITALS – places devoted primarily to the maintenance and operation of health facilities for the diagnosis, treatment and care of individuals. Early 4000 BCE – religions identified certain of their deities with healing. ✓ The temples of Saturn and later of Asclepius were recognized as healing centers. 431 BCE – Brahmanic Hospitals were established in Sri Lanka 230 BCE – King Ashoka established a chain of hospitals in Hindustan. 100 BCE – Romans established hospitals (valetudinarian) for the treatment of their sick and injured soldiers. 331 CE – when Roman emperor Constantine I (Constantine the Great) having been converted to Christianity, abolished all pagan hospitals and this created opportunity for a new start. 370 CE – St. Basil the Great established a religious foundation in Cappadocia that included a hospital, and isolation unit for those suffering from leprosy, and buildings t house the poor, elderly and the sick. CLASSIFICATION OF HOSPITALS A. According to Ownership a. Government – created by law. i. May be under the national government, DOH, Local Government Unit (LGU), Department of National Defense (DND), Philippine National Police (PNP), Department of Justice (DOJ), State Universities and Colleges (SUCs), Government and Controlled Corporations (GOCC) and others. b. Private – owned, established and operated with funds through donation, principal, investment or other means. i. May be a single, proprietorship, partnership, corporation, cooperative, foundation, religious, non-government organization and others. B. According to Scope of Services a. General – provides services for all kinds of illnesses, diseases, injuries or deformities. i. Shall provide medical and surgical care to the sick and injured, maternity, newborn and childcare. ii. It shall be equipped with the service capabilities needed to support board certified/ eligible medical specialists and other licensed physicians rendering services in, but not limited to, the following: 1. Clinical Services a. Family Medicine b. Pediatrics c. Internal Medicine  d. Obstetrics and Gynecology e. Surgery 2. Emergency Services 3. Outpatient Services 4. Ancillary and Support Services such as clinical laboratory, imaging facility and pharmacy b. Specialty – hospital that specializes in particular disease or condition or in one type of patient. i. Specialized Hospital may be devoted to treatment of any of the following: 1. Treatment of a particular type of illness or for a particular condition requiring a range of treatment. a. Ex: Philippine Orthopedic Center, National Center for Mental Health, San Lazaro Hospital, a hospital dedicated for the treatment of Cancer 2. Treatment of Patients suffering from diseases of a particular organ or groups of organs. a. Ex: Lung Center of the Philippines, Philippine Heart Center, National Kidney and Transplant Institute, a hospital dedicated to treatment of eye disorder. 3. Treatment of patients belonging to a particular group such as children, women, elderly and others. a. Ex: Philippine Children’s Medical Center, National Children’s Hospital, Dr. Jose Fabella Memorial Hospital. C. According to Functional Capacity a. General Hospital i. Level 1 ii. Level 2 iii. Level 3 b. Specialty Hospital c. Trauma Capability of Hospitals i. Trauma-Capable Facility – designated as Trauma Center ii. Trauma-Receiving Facility – receives and transport patient to the point of care or a trauma center. CLASSIFICATION OF OTHER HEALTH FACILITIES Category A: Primary Care Facility – first contact health facility that offers basic services including emergency services and provision for normal deliveries: It subdivided into: 1. With In-patient a. Infirmary b. Birthing Home  2. Without beds – a facility where medicine, medical and /or dental examination/ treatment is dispensed. a. Medical Out-patient Clinic b. Medical Facility for Overseas Workers and Seafarers (OFW Clinic) c. Dental Clinics Category B: Custodial Care Facility – provides long term care, including basic human services like food and shelter to patients with chronic or mental illness, patient in need of rehabilitation owing substance abuses, people requiring ongoing health and nursing care due to chronic impairments and a reduce degree of independence in activities of daily living. 1. Custodial Psychiatric Care Facility 2. Substance/ Drug Abuse Treatment and Rehabilitation Center 3. Sanitarium/ Leprosarium 4. Nursing Home Category C: Specialized Out-patient Facility – facility with highly competent and trained staff that perform highly specialized procedures on an out-patient basis, but not limited to, the following: 1. Dialysis Clinic 2. Ambulatory Surgical Clinic 3. In-Vitro Fertilization Center 4. Stem Cell Facility 5. Oncology Chemotherapeutic Center/ Clinic 6. Radiation Oncology Facility 7. Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Center/ Clinic TUBERCULOSIS AND LEPROSY HOSPITALS ✓ Between 1880 and 1940, tuberculosis hospitals provided rest, relaxation, special diets, and fresh air. ✓ Leprosy is known to be contagious; Lazar houses were established throughout Europe and in the Middle Ages to isolate those with leprosy. CLINICS – medical facility where one or more doctors provide treatment to patients. MENTAL HEALTH FACILITIES – psychiatric patients traditionally have been cared for in long-stay mental health facilities, formerly called asylums or mental hospitals. ✓ Most large general hospitals have a psychiatric unit. ✓ Also known as Psychiatric Hospitals, mental health units, mental asylum or simply asylum ✓ In older Lunatic asylum, the treatment of inmates was sometimes brutal and focused on containment and restraint. LONG-TERM-CARE FACILITIES – historically were homes for the elderly, the infirm, and those with chronic irreversible and disabling disorders, especially if the patients were indigent. HOSPICE – historically, a hospice was a guesthouse intended for pilgrims and was often closely connected with a monastery and supervised by monks. OUTPATIENT/ AMBULATORY CARE – Ambulatory Care Center, Surgical Center or Outpatient Clinics provide services that do not require overnight hospitalization. ✓ The services range from simple surgeries to diagnostics testing or therapy. PREVENTIVE CARE – consists of measures taken for disease prevention, as opposed to disease treatment. HOME HEALTH CARE – provides nursing, therapy, personal care or housekeeping services in the patient’s own home. TELEMEDICINE – also referred to as “telehealth” or “ehealth”. ✓ Allows health care professionals to evaluate, diagnose and treat patients in remote locations using telecommunications. ✓ Allows patients in remote locations to access medical expertise quickly, efficiently and without travel. Teleconsultation – refers more specifically to the consultation done using telecommunications, with the purpose being diagnosis, or treatment of a patient with the sites being remote from patient or physician. Telenursing – refers to the use of telecommunications and information technology in order to provide nursing services in health care. Teleradiology – ability to send radiographic images from location to another. CHAPTER II – HOSPITAL ORGANIZATION Organization – organized body of people with a particular purpose, especially a business, society, association, etc. Board of Directors (Board of Trustees) – occupies the position at the top of the chart. ✓ The board hires and fires the CEO (Executive Director, Administrator or President) and sets policy for the hospital. PHILOSOPHY – business philosophy definition is the set of principles and beliefs that a company is working toward to achieve. ✓ A business philosophy may also be called the: company vision or mission statement. ✓ The philosophy of any company serves as its blueprint for operation. ✓ Webster’s Dictionary defines philosophy as a system of motivation or fundamental principles that serves as the basis for beliefs or actions. VISION STATEMENT – used to describe future goals or aims of an organization. ✓ Focuses on tomorrow and what an organization wants to ultimately become; gives the company direction. MISSION STATEMENT – identifies the reason that an organization exists; a well written mission statement will identify what is unique about the organization. ✓ Focuses on today and what an organization does to achieve it; drives the company. OVERVIEW OF A HOSPITAL ORGANIZATION Clinical Services – carry out the diagnosis and treatment. Ancillary Services – provide technical support to the clinical services. Domestic and Administrative Services – provide the direction and overall support to the clinical and ancillary. Governing Body – at the top of the hospital organization and is headed by the Chairman. o Chief of Staff - generally serves as a liaison between the medical staff, the board and the CEO. o Medical Staff - is accountable for the delivery of quality care within the institution; divided into departments such as medicine, surgery, pediatrics, obstetrics, gynecology, radiology, pathology, and anesthesiology. o Chief Executive Officer (CEO) - responsible for the overall operation of the hospital o Governing Board – may have 7-21 members depending on the size, nature and type of hospital; determines the policies and goals while the CEO recommends, advises and implements them. Information Services o Admitting Section – responsible for providing a systematic and orderly process of admitting patients. o Medical Records Department – maintain a central file of records. o Hospital Information System – provide a common source of information about a patient’s health history. o Human Resource Department – responsible for managing job recruitment, selection, and promoting. Clinical Services o Emergency Department – place for providing emergency treatment for the injured. o Emergency – state where a delay in the immediate and appropriate treatment may cause loss of lives, or a condition which require immediate medical attention. o Out-Patient Department (OPD)/ Hospital-sponsored Ambulatory Care Services – patients are managed on an outpatient’s basis as much as possible instead of being admitted to the hospital.  o In-Patient Care/ Admission – called a hospital patient; involves the occupancy of a hospital bed. Nursing Unit – where the patients are accommodated are called nursing units or wards. Therapeutic Services o Dietary Department - responsible for planning both general and special diets devising menus, preparing and serving food for patients and personnel. o Pharmacy Department – vital department of the hospital as almost all the patients are given prescribed drugs by their attending physicians. o Laboratory Department/ Pathology Department/ Clinical Laboratory – responsible for assisting the medical staff by performing tests. o Radiology Department – responsible for doing procedures ranging from plain x-rays to those utilizing contrast media. Domestic/ Support Services o House Keeping Department - responsible for the maintenance of a clean and sanitary environment in the hospital. o Laundry Department - responsible for the maintenance of clean and sanitary linens, uniforms, etc. o Hospital Power Plant – provide and transmit heat, light, power, steam, hot water and refrigeration in accordance with the need of the various departments of the hospital. o Maintenance Department – responsible for the upkeep and repair of the buildings and grounds and equipment. o Transportation Department - responsible for transporting personnel either for purchasing or social services. o Central Supply Services (CSS) - responsible for provision and processing of sterile packaged equipment and supplies. Administrative o Procurement – advice the CEO on financial policy and long-range planning. o Accounting – central to the hospital’s financial business. o Billing Section – responsible for registration, establishment of financial responsibility for the visit, patient check-in and check-out. CHAPTER III – THE SCIENCE OF RADIOLOGY & RADIOLOGIC TECHNOLOGY HISTORY OF MEDICINE Prehistoric and Ancient Medicine o Castor Oil – (laxative) a drug used to stimulate or increase the frequency of bowel evacuation. o Opium – an extract from the Poppy Papaver Somniferum, which has analgesic and narcotic due to its content of morphine. ✓ Prehistoric people probably treated their wounds similarly to the way animals treat themselves.  ✓ Disease was considered an imbalance of the four humors of the body: phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. Ancient Egypt o Isis – healing goddess. o Hathor – mistress of heaven and protector of women during childbirth o Keket – ensured fertility. ✓ They linked anatomy and physiology with theology each with special deity as its protector. ✓ They believed that the body was composed of a system of channels w/hearth at the center; air came in ears and nose; channels carried blood, urine, feces, tears and sperm. Ancient India ✓ Life was a cycle of creation, preservation, and destruction. ✓ Detected diabetes by the sweetness of the patient’s urine and treated snakebite by applying tourniquets. Ancient China ✓ They believe that harmony was a delicate balance with yin and yang, and Tao was considered the way. ✓ According to Nei Ching, five methods of treatment were available: o Cure the spirit. o Nourish the body. o Give medications. o Treat the whole body. o Use acupuncture and moxibustion. ✓ Chinese also developed an inoculation against smallpox. Ancient Greece o Asclepios of Thessaly – contained statue of a God to whom gifts were often given as a sign of worship. o Tholos – usually a round building encircled a pool or sacred spring of water for purification. o Abaton – a building considered to be an incubation site where the cure took place. Pre-Hippocratic Medicine o Thales – professed that the basic element in animal and plant life was water. o Anaximander – believed that living creatures originated in the water. o Anaximenes – believed that air was the element necessary for life. o Heraclitus – believed that fire was the principal element for life.  o Hippocrates – considered the father of Western Medicine. Hippocratic Corpus – contains more than 60 medical treatises. ✓ Most of them was not written by himself. ✓ Writings are similar in that they emphasize rational & natural explanations for the treatment of disease & reject sorcery and magic. ✓ He emphasized the importance of careful observation of patient. ✓ He believed in the powers of nature to heal over time & taught the prevention of disease through a regime of diet and exercise. Hippocratic Oath – provide guidelines for physician-patient relationship, for the right of privacy, and for the use of treatment for curative purposes only. ✓ It still governs the ethical conduct of physicians today. ✓ During the Middle Ages, the destruction or neglect of the Roman sanitary facilities resulted in many local epidemics that eventually led to the great plague, known as the “Black Death” during the 14th Century. Christianity o Christians sought to bring the healing message of Christ to those in need. o During the Dark Ages, practices involved prayer, exorcism, holy oil, relics of saints, supernaturalism, and superstition. Renaissance (14th – 17th Century) o Paracelsus – father of modern pharmacology; combined alchemy with the treatment of disease. o Jean Fernel – suggested gonorrhea and syphilis were two separate diseases. o Ambroise Pare – forerunner in clinical surgery. o Andreas Vesalius – father of modern anatomy. o Jan Baptista Van Helmont – compared the weight of the urine to the weight of the water. o Galileo Galilei – law of motion. o Isaac Newton – gravity. o Christiaan Huygens – centigrade system for measuring temperature. o Gabriel Daniel Fahrenheit – system for measuring temperature named after him. o Quinine – treatment for malaria. o Leonardo Da Vinci – explored human anatomy through dissection. o Marcello Malpighi – microscope. o Anton Van Leeuwenhoek – isolated the microorganism with a microscope he made. o William Harvey – first to demonstrate the function of the heart and circulation of the blood. o Albrecht Von Haller – founder of modern physiologic theory. o Lazzaro Spallanzani – pioneer in experimental fertilization. o Stephen Hales – demonstrated the dynamics of blood circulation. o Giovanni Battista Morgagni – father of pathology  o Edward Jenner – introduced a vaccine to prevent smallpox; the discovery served as the foundation for the field of immunology. o William Hunter – specialist in obstetrics o John Hunter – closing of aneurysm. o Philippe Pinel – demanded that a more humane regime be instilled at Asylum de Bicetre. o Louis Pasteur – worked with bacteria to prove the germ theory of infection; through his work, the process of pasteurization was developed. o Robert Koch – established the bacterial cause for many infections; received a Nobel Prize Award in 1905 for his developing tuberculin as a test for tuberculosis. o Florence Nightingale – developed the foundation of modern nursing. o Wilhelm Roentgen – discovered x-rays. o Alexander Fleming – discovered penicillin in 1928. Nineteenth Century (1801-1900) o Autopsies – major focus of medicine. o Rudolf Virchow – all cells come from other cells. o Claude Bernard – founder of experimental physiology; discovered homeostasis; clarified the functions of liver; first to linked pancreas with diabetes. o Rene-Theophile Hyacinthe Laennec – invention of stethoscope. o Ephraim Mcdowell – first successful abdominal operation to remove a huge cyst from the ovary. o J. Marion Sims – invented the Sims position and later the speculum and catheter stethoscope. Twentieth Century (1901-2000) o Major Walter Reed – discovered the cause of yellow fever. o Paul Ehrlich – father of chemotherapy. o Abel, Rowntree, & Turner – invented the first artificial kidney, led to kidney dialysis. o Willem Einthoven – electrocardiogram o Hans Burger – electroencephalogram o Christiaan Barnard – first successful human transplant o Jonas Salk – discovered the Salk Vaccine which helped controls and prevent poliomyelitis. o Francis Crick & James Watson – in 1953, they discovered the secret of life; Through their work, they identified the molecular structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), a key to hereditary and genetics. st 21 Century o Health – a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. o Disease – the pattern of response of a living organism to some form of injury. o Mortality – death rate  o Morbidity – occurrence of disease or condition PIONEERS OF RADIOLOGY Archimedes – explained the reaction of solids when they are placed in liquids. Democritus – described materials as being composed of ultimate particles. Thales – discovered some of the effects of electricity. Evangelista Torricelli – produced the first-recognized vacuum when he invented the barometer in 1643. Otto Van Guericke – in 1646, he invented an air pump that could remove air from a vessel or tube. Robert Boyle – repeated Guericke’s invention in 1654 Herman Sprengel - repeated Guericke’s invention in 1865 William Gilbert – one of the first to extensively study electricity and magnetism; noted for inventing primitive electroscope. Isaac Newton – built and improved the static generator. Charles du Fay – distinguished two different kinds of electricity. Abbe Jean-Antoine Nollet – made a significant improvement in the electroscope, a vessel for discharging electricity under a vacuum condition. Benjamin Franklin – conducted many electrical experiments. William Watson – demonstrated a current of electricity by transmitting electricity from a Leyden jar through wires and vacuum tubes. William Morgan – noticed the difference in color of partially evacuated tubes; he noted that when a tube cracked and air leaked in, the amount of air in the tube determined the coloration. Michael Faraday – induced and electric current by moving a magnet in and out of a coil in 1831; from this experiment evolved the concept of electromagnetic induction. Heinrich Daniel Ruhmkorff – made the most significant improvement on induction coils. Johann Wilhelm Hittorf – conducted several experiments with cathode rays. William Crookes – furthered the study of cathode rays and demonstrated that matter was emitted from the cathode with enough energy to rotate a wheel placed within a tube. Phillip Lenard – found that cathode rays could penetrate thin metal and would project a few centimeters into the air. William Goodspeed – produced a radiograph in 1890; was not credited with the discovery of x-rays. Johann Heinrich Schulze – first photographic copy of written materials in 1727 Richard Leach Maddox – produced a film with a gelatin silver bromide emulsion that has remained the basic component for film in 1871. George Eastman – produced and patented roll-paper film. CENTENNIAL ANNIVERSARY TRIBUTE: W.C. ROENTGEN Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen o November 8, 1895 – he was the first human to see the shadows of his own bones lying within living tissue. o March 27, 1845 – he was born in Lennep, Germany ✓ Friedrich Conrad Roentgen – his father; a well-to-do cloth merchant, ✓ Charlotte Constanze Frowein Roentgen – his mother, a native of Holland were first cousins. ✓ 3 years old – his family emigrated to Apeldoorn, Holland ✓ 1865 – he began primary school in Apeldoorn and later went on to secondary school. ✓ 17 yrs. old – he entered Utrecht Technical School ✓ Dr. Jan Willem Gunning – teacher that boarded with Roentgen; second father of Roentgen. ✓ He was rated “very good” and “outstanding” in mathematics and geometry and “good” and “very good” in chemistry. ✓ Zeer Slecht – his last marks in physics that means very bad. ✓ He is considered “immodest” and “arrogant”. ✓ University of Utrecht – he studies courses here such as zoology, physics, logic and geometry. ✓ Swiss Polytechnic Institute – when Dr. Gunning left Utrecht, Roentgen also left and continued his studies in Zurich as a mechanical engineering student. ✓ Apeldoorm – nickname given to him by his fellow Zurich students. ✓ 1868 – he graduates as a mechanical engineer and stayed to earn his Doctor of Philosophy after submitting his thesis “Studies on Gases”. ✓ August Kundt – recognized his potential and strongly influenced his development. ✓ University of Wurzburg’s Department of Physics – university where he transfers and became an assistant of Kundt to study and teach. ✓ January 1872 – he returned briefly to Apeldoorm and his parents to be married. ✓ Anna Bertha Ludwig – his wife; a charming, tall and slim, but somewhat sickly young women 6 years his senior. ✓ 1872 – Roentgen and Kunt received faculty appointments at the University of Strasbourg where he remained for the next 7 years. ✓ 1879 – age 34, he accepted an invitation to the important post of professor of physics at the University of Giessen in Hesse where he remained for 8 years. ✓ 1888 – During his studies and experiments in electromagnetic phenomena in Giessen, he developed proof of occurrence of magnetic effects when dielectric is moved between two charged condenser plates. ✓ Hendrik Lorentz – coined the magnetic effects the “the Roentgen current”; this was a very highly regarded study, said to have paved the way for Lorentz’ electron theory of matter and Einstein’s theory of relativity.  ✓ 1888 – he received offers from the universities in Jena, Utrecht, and Wurzburg. ✓ He was especially pleased by the offer from Utrecht (from whence he had been expelled so long ago) for it served to eradicate the blemish on his academic career. ✓ He accepted the Wurzburg offer to replace the renowned Professor Kolhrausch as a Professor of physics and Director of the new Physical Institute ✓ November 8, 1895, he was working alone in his laboratory, observing the effects of electrical discharges within a vacuum tube. He was using Hittorf-Crookes tube. He had covered the tube with black cardboard and darkened the laboratory. As the tube was energized, he observed the phosphorescent glow of a sheet of paper treated with barium platinocyanide on a nearby table. He usually has two assistants, but they had left for the day, and he was left to speculate alone. The vacuum tube was covered, so light could not be emanating from the source. Rather the increase the distance between the vacuum tube and coated paper. Roentgen began introducing objects between the two: a book, hard rubber, glass and various metals. The wood offered little resistance to the rays and the book only slightly reduced their intensity. Hard rubber was more easily penetrated than glass (because of the lead content of glass in those days. The only metals of those interposed that seemed to completely block the rays were lead and platinum. Image his amazement when he then placed his own hand in the path of the rays and saw the shadows of his bones! ✓ December 28, 1895 – his first announcement of the existence of new rays, which he called “x-rays”, on a preliminary report to the Physical Medical Society of Wurzburg. ✓ January 23, 1896 – his first and only public demonstration and lecture ✓ Professor von Kolliker – colleagues of Roentgen that assist him to demonstrate the x- ray; proposed the rays to be named “Roentgen Rays” in honor of their distinguished discoverer. ✓ March 9, 1896 – he presented a second communication to the Physical Medical Society in which he elaborated on his continued investigations, addressing equipment’s design and construction. ✓ 1901 – he received the first Nobel Prize in Physics where he donated his prize money to scientific research at the University of Wurzburg ✓ 1912 – his wife’s health began to fail ✓ 1920 – he retired from his position as professor of physics ✓ February 10, 1923 – in his 78th year, he died in Munich. EARLY DAYS IN DISCOVERY Thomas Alva Edison – attempted to explain the nature of the rays to the citizen, however no one fully understood the effects of radiation; took notice and questioned the effects of x-ray. ✓ Circuses used x-rays as entertainment to guest the contents of women’s purse. ✓ Department Stores and fairs offered bone portraits. ✓ A Manufacturing Company produced lead underwear for modest women and men.  ✓ England passed a law against opera glasses with x-ray vision. ✓ Some wealthy persons purchased x-rays units for their home to entertain guests by imaging their skeletons with the fluoroscope. ADVANCE EXPERIMENTATION OF THE ROENTGEN RAYS Michael Idvorsky Pupin – made on January 2, 1896, the first known radiograph in the United States. ✓ His production of radiograph was thought to have occurred approximately 2 weeks after Roentgen discovery. Calcium Tungstate – a great improvement over barium platinocyanide, which was promoted by Edison for the coating in fluoroscopy. Clarence Madison Dally – suffered severe radiation damage as a result of work. 1903 – Pierre, Marie Curie and Henri Becquerel were jointly awarded the Nobel Prize of Physics in the discover of radioactivity. Pierre Curie – noticed that radium killed diseased cells. Marie Curie – refined the knowledge of radioactivity and purified the radium metal. 1911 – she received a Nobel Prize for her work in Chemistry. RADIOACTIVITY ✓ The property of certain elements to emit rays or subatomic particle spontaneously from matter. ✓ Spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei Antoine Henri Becquerel – discovered in 1896 that the element uranium can blacken a photographic plate, although separated from it by glass or black paper. ✓ He also observed the rays that produced the darkening can discharge an electroscope, indicating that the rays possess an electric charge. 1898 – Marie Curie and Pierre Curie deduced that radioactivity is a phenomenon associated with atoms, independent of their physical or chemical state. ✓ They also deduced that because the uranium-containing ore pitchblende is more intensely radioactive than the uranium salts that were used by Becquerel, other radioactive elements must be in the ore. Polonium and Radium – in 1898, two new radioactive elements they discovered in a series of chemical treatments of the pitchblende. Thorium – Marie Curie discovered the element to be radioactive. Actinium – radioactive element discovered by Andre Louis Debierne in 1899. Radon – radioactive gas discovered by Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy in the same year. MARIE CURIE 1896 – the Curies worked together on radioactivity. Radioactive – term coined by Marie Curie for substance that gave off these rays. 1906 – took over Pierre Curie’s post at the Sorbonne after he was run over and killed by a horse-drawn carriage. Irene – older daughter; later married to Frederic Joliot and became a famous scientist and Nobel Laureate herself. 1910 – he worked with Andre Debierne to isolate pure radium metal. 1914 – University of Paris built the Institut du Radium to provide laboratory space for research on radioactive materials. ✓ During World War 1, she helped equip ambulances with X-ray equipment; She developed approximately 20 mobile radiographic units and 200 installations for the army. July 4, 1934 – Marie Curie died because of leukemia as result of her exposure to massive doses of high-energy radiation. Joliot-Curies – announces the discovery of artificial radioactivity. ✓ One of the outstanding applications of her work has been the use of radiation to treat cancer. ANTOINE HENRI BECQUEREL (1852-1908) He discovered radioactivity in uranium. Alexander Becquerel – his father; studied light and phosphorescence and invented the phosphoroscope. Antoine Cesar Becquerel – his grandfather; one of the founders of electrochemistry. Reserches sur la Phosphorescence – Research on Phosphorescence Decouverte des Radiations Invisibles Emises par l’uranium – Discovery of the Invisible Radiation Emitted by Uranium. Radium – has a harmful effect upon living cells. ✓ Cancerous cells, however, are often more sensitive to radiation than normal cells. ✓ Radium is now used in the treatment of only a few kinds of cancer. NUCLEAR RADIOLOGY ✓ Branch of Radiology using radioactive materials for medical diagnosis and treatment. ✓ Ernest Lawrence – in 1932, he invented cyclotron, a chamber that made it possible to accelerate particles to high speeds for use as projectiles. ✓ Little Boy – fueled with uranium bomb that were dropped on Hiroshima. ✓ Fatman – fueled with plutonium bomb that were dropped on Nagasaki.