Research Method Vocabulary PDF

RESEARCH METHOD VOCABULARY aim The main goal of a research project. aversive stimulation Unpleasant event intended to decrease the chance of a behavior being repeated. behavioral checklist A list of behaviors that researchers use when observing human participants and non-human animals. behaviors...

RESEARCH METHOD VOCABULARY aim The main goal of a research project. aversive stimulation Unpleasant event intended to decrease the chance of a behavior being repeated. behavioral checklist A list of behaviors that researchers use when observing human participants and non-human animals. behaviors are clearly defined (operationalized) to avoid ambiguity, and researchers keep a tally (count) of the number of times each behavior is observed. case study In-depth study of a single person or small group of people; a key feature is that data is collected using multiple techniques (triangulation), such as interview, observation and psychometric testing. It may include quantitative and qualitative, and primary and secondary data. ceiling effect A high proportion of participants achieve the highest score on a test. controlled variables Variables that are not held constant, i.e. they have been allowed to vary between the two groups or conditions; poor control can reduce the validity of research findings as it becomes unclear whether changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable or from the changes in these uncontrolled variables. counterbalancing In a repeated measures design, counterbalancing is used to avoid order effects. For example, half of the participants might be randomly allocated to do condition A first, then B and the other half, condition B first, then A. co-variables The variables measured in a correlational study are known as co-variables; the terms independent and dependent are not used as the researchers are looking for a relationship rather than a difference between variables. cross-sectional A research design in which groups of people are compared, particularly people of different age groups. For example, if a researcher wanted to see how children’s thinking changes over time, they could give the same task to children aged six and nine and compare how their thinking differs. demand characteristics Features of the research environment that may give away the study’s aim, potentially affecting the participants’ behavior and decreasing validity. dependent variable The measured variable in an experimental study. double-blind An experimental procedure used to increase internal validity in which neither the participant nor the person collecting the data knows which condition the participant is in, i.e. whether they are in the experimental or the control group. expectancy effect A change in a person’s wellbeing or behavior that arises merely as a consequence of their expectation of such a change (as in the placebo effect); can also be used to refer to changes in a participant’s behavior in a research study that arise as a consequence of the researcher's expectations and not due to the manipulation of the independent variable, for example. extraneous variables Any variable that is not the independent variable which could potentially affect the results of the research. forced/fixed-choice Designed to force respondents to express an opinion or attitude. generalizability The extent to which research findings gathered from a sample can be applied to the target population. More broadly, it may be used to refer to the extent to which findings can be generalized to other populations and/or settings. hypothesis A precisely stated, testable statement that can be directional (one-tailed), non-directional (two-tailed) or null and alternative. A directional experimental hypothesis states which group/condition will score higher than the other; a directional correlational hypothesis will state whether the correlation will be positive or negative; a non-directional experimental hypothesis states that there will be a difference between the groups/conditions but not which way the results will go; a non-directional correlational hypothesis states that there will be a correlation/relationship between the two co-variables. The null hypothesis states that there will be no difference/correlation between the variables and any difference/relationship that does arise will be due to chance. The term alternative hypothesis is used in non-experimental studies (i.e. correlational studies), meaning the alternative to the null. independent variable The variable that is changed to see the effect on the dependent variable. inter-rater reliability The extent to which two researchers agree on their scoring of a questionnaire or test. To check for inter-rater reliability, the results of two raters (researchers) will be correlated on a scatter graph plotting observer 1’s data points against observer 2’s data points; if the results are reliable, the data points should be positively correlated. interview Researchers ask open and closed questions to participants either face-to-face, by telephone or online; interviews may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured. laboratory setting A controlled environment where participants can be observed. leading questions A question that prompts or encourages a particular answer. longitudinal design Research that takes place over an extended period, repeatedly collecting data from the same participants in order to monitor changes in their behavior, thoughts and feelings over time; may last from weeks to decades. mean A measure of central tendency in which all data points are added together and the total is divided by the number of data points in that group or condition; may not be appropriate if the dataset includes extreme scores that could lead to a result that does not represent the majority of datapoints. measure of central tendency A descriptive statistic that summarizes the data into a single score, which tells us about the midpoint or average, i.e. the mode, median and/or mean. measure of spread Measures of spread help researchers to identify how similar the data points are to one another and give an idea of the amount of variation in the data set. median The ‘middle’ value when a list of numbers (scores) is put in order from smallest to greatest. mode The most frequently occurring value in a data set. natural setting Normal, everyday environment where participants can be observed. negative correlation A relationship between two variables where one measurement increases as the other decreases. objective Factual and unbiased by personal thoughts or opinions; quantitative data tends to be objective. operational definition How something is observed or measured. order effects An explanation for boredom, fatigue and the result of practice with repeated measures designs, in which the participants’ behavior is affected by the order in which they complete the conditions of the experiment. outlier Data point differing significantly from other observations. participant attrition Participants that drop out of a research project. This is a common problem with longitudinal research. participant variables Members of one group share some common characteristics that makes them different to the people in the other group. Random allocation is often used in an independent measures design to reduce the risk of this occurring and affecting validity. placebo effect An improvement in performance or symptoms despite having taken a placebo or inactive treatment/drug. This results from the expectation of a positive outcome. Some drugs perform no better than placebos and therefore any positive effect that they do have is seen as a placebo effect. positive correlation A relationship between two variables where as one measurement increases, the other also increases. psychometric Objective measure of an individual’s mental capabilities/attributes. qualitative Data that is descriptive, usually obtained from questionnaires, interviews, surveys and observations. These can be rich sources of information to add to quantitative data. quantitative Data that is numeric and obtained from measurements. questionnaire A way of gathering self-report data from participants. This could be online or with paper and pen. Questions can be both open-ended and closed-ended. random allocation In an independent measures design, participants are randomly assigned to conditions of the independent variable. This reduces the impact of participant variables, so increasing validity. range A descriptive statistic, which is a simple measure of spread, meaning it tells us how widely the data is spread between the lowest and the highest data points (scores). The larger the range, the greater the spread. Can be used with a median or mean. raw data Data that is unprocessed. reliability The extent to which measurements/results are consistent; if a measurement was retaken by the same researcher (test-retest) and the outcome was the same, the measurement would be reliable. Researchers often check for inter-rater reliability, which is the extent to which two researchers agree with each other‘s measurements. The term reliability can be applied to the collection of results from individual participants or to results of a study as a whole. Careful standardization of the procedure should ensure that data/measurements are reliable. replicability The extent to which a study can be carried out again in exactly the same way, to check for reliability of the findings, for example. Studies with standardized procedures (e.g. experiments and controlled observations) typically have high replicability, whereas unstructured interviews or participant observations, for example, have low replicability. representative The extent to which the sample reflects the socio-demographic make-up of the target population from which they are drawn, such as in terms of gender, ethnicity, employment and health status. The more representative the sample, the more generalizable the findings. sample The participants who take part in a research study. The sample is selected (recruited) from a target population to whom the researchers wish to generalize the findings. scatter graph A type of graph that is used to represent correlational data. self-report A research method in which participants give their thoughts and opinions in either questionnaires or interviews. The data collected could be either qualitative or quantitative. single-blind A technique used to increase validity in which the participant is unaware whether they are in the experimental or control group. social desirability bias Response bias where participants give answers to be viewed favorably by others. split-half method Measure of internal consistency where a test is split into two parts and administered; the two parts are correlated (high correlation would show consistency). standard deviation A measure of spread that gives precise information about the average difference between the data points in a group or condition and the mean. For example, the larger the standard deviation, the more the data points vary around the mean; the smaller the standard deviation, the more tightly clustered/packed around the data points are around the mean. The calculation uses every data point and is therefore seen as more representative than the range. standardized instructions When instructions given to participants are kept the same. standardized procedure When the way data is gathered is kept the same for all participants. subjective Influenced by a person’s personal thoughts, feelings or opinions. target population The group of people to whom a researcher wishes to generalize their findings. test-retest method Participants repeat a test or questionnaire a few weeks or months later to see whether their scores are consistent; scores should be roughly the same if the data is reliable; this can be checked by plotting participants’ scores at time point one (x axis) against the same participants’ scores at time point two (y axis); a positive correlation between the pairs of scores suggests that the data is reliable. triangulation A method that increases the credibility and reliability of research through the use of more than one (or several) research methods. This could include using interviews alongside observations, or even both structures and semi-structured self-reports. validity Refers to the extent to which the researcher is measuring what they think they are measuring and the extent to which the findings are useful and meaningful. HOW MRS. THEOBOLD DEFINES THE RESEARCH METHOD TERMS Aim The primary goal of a research project. Aversive Stimulation An unpleasant event meant to reduce a behavior's recurrence. Behavioral Checklist A list of clearly defined behaviors for researchers to record observations of participants. Case Study An in-depth examination of an individual or small group using various data collection methods, including interviews and observations. Ceiling Effect A situation where many participants score at the highest level on a test. Controlled Variables Variables allowed to vary in a study that can impact results, affecting validity. Counterbalancing A method in repeated measures design that mitigates order effects by varying the order of conditions for participants. Co-variables Variables measured in a correlational study to identify relationships without using independent/dependent terms. Cross-sectional A study design comparing different age groups to observe changes over time. Demand Characteristics Traits in a research setting that hint at the study's purpose, potentially altering participant behavior. Dependent Variable The variable measured in an experiment. Double-blind An experimental design where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments to increase validity. Expectancy Effect Behavior changes resulting from a participant’s expectations or a researcher's anticipations, rather than the independent variable. Extraneous Variables Variables outside the independent variable that may influence research outcomes. Forced/Fixed-choice A question format that requires participants to express an opinion. Generalizability The ability to apply research findings from a sample to the broader population. Hypothesis A clear, testable prediction, which can be directional, non-directional, or null. Independent Variable The variable manipulated to observe effects on the dependent variable. Inter-rater Reliability The degree of agreement between two researchers in scoring or observing data. Interview A method where researchers ask structured, semi-structured, or unstructured questions; can be face-to-face or remote. Laboratory Setting A controlled environment where participant behavior can be observed. Leading Questions Questions that encourage a specific type of response. Longitudinal Design Research conducted over time, collecting repeated data from the same participants to track changes. Mean The average value calculated by dividing the sum of all data points by the number of points. Measure of Central Tendency A statistic that summarizes data with a single score (mean, median, or mode). Measure of Spread Statistics that show how much data points differ from one another or the mean. Median The middle value in a sorted list of numbers. Mode The most frequently occurring value in a data set. Natural Setting The typical environment where participants can be observed without interference. Negative Correlation A relationship where one variable increases while the other decreases. Objective Data or findings unaffected by personal bias; typically quantitative. Operational Definition A clear statement of how a variable will be measured or observed. Order Effects Changes in participant behavior due to the sequence of tasks in a repeated measures design. Outlier A data point that is significantly different from other observations. Participant Attrition When participants drop out of a longitudinal study. Participant Variables Characteristics that differentiate groups in a study; random allocation helps mitigate this. Placebo Effect An outcome improvement resulting from the expectation of benefits from an inactive treatment. Positive Correlation A relationship where both variables increase together. Psychometric An objective measure of mental capabilities or attributes. Qualitative Data Descriptive data from sources like questionnaires and interviews, providing rich information. Quantitative Data Numerical data gathered through measurements. Questionnaire A tool for collecting self-reported data, can be online or paper-based, with open/closed questions. Random Allocation Randomly assigning participants to different conditions to reduce participant variable effects. Range The difference between the highest and lowest data points; indicates data spread. Raw Data Unprocessed data collected from research. Reliability The consistency of results or measurements over time. Replicability The ability of a study to be repeated with the same results, indicating reliability. Representative How well a sample reflects the demographics of the target population, influencing generalizability. Sample The subset of participants taken from a target population for study. Scatter Graph A visual representation of correlational data. Self-report A research method where participants provide their thoughts via questionnaires or interviews. Single-blind Participants are unaware of their group assignment to minimize bias. Social Desirability Bias When participants answer questions to appear favorable to others. Split-half Method A measure of internal consistency where a test is divided into two correlated parts. Standard Deviation A spread measure indicating how much scores vary from the mean. Standardized Instructions Identical instructions given to all participants in a study. Standardized Procedure Keeping data collection methods uniform for every participant. Subjective Influenced by personal opinions or feelings. Target Population The overall group to whom a researcher intends to generalize findings. Test-Retest Method Participants take the same test at different times to check for consistency in scores. Triangulation Using multiple research methods to enhance credibility and reliability. Validity The extent to which a study accurately measures what it intends to and provides meaningful results.