Psychology Notes PDF

Term 1 Module 0 Mod 0.1 - The Scientific Attitude The Scientific Attitude ○ Curiosity ○ Skepticism ○ Humility Pyschological Constructs ○ Mod 0.2 - 3 Roadblocks to Critical Thinking Hindsight bias Overconfidence Perceiving order in rando...

Term 1 Module 0 Mod 0.1 - The Scientific Attitude The Scientific Attitude ○ Curiosity ○ Skepticism ○ Humility Pyschological Constructs ○ Mod 0.2 - 3 Roadblocks to Critical Thinking Hindsight bias Overconfidence Perceiving order in random events Mod 0.3 The Scientific Method Self-correcting method Peer-reviewed Theory → organized observations that explain behavior Hypothesis → testable prediction ○ support/revise/reject, prove ○ Falsifiability - measure of the strength of a hypothesis How easy to prove/disprove Wha can a hypothesis do to our observations? ○ Create bias Operational definitions (operationalization) ○ Define exact procedures ○ Define variables Replication ○ Repeatable ○ Peer-review Theory only useful if: ○ Organizaes behavior ○ Useful prediction ○ Stimulates more research  Test hypothesis ○ Descriptive Case study In-depth analysis of an individual or group Use when experiment would not be repeatable Ex: Genie ○ Mistreated girl → learned a language needs to be learned between 0-1, or else learning any language at all is hard Pro: Learn abt rare conditions that r not repeatable Con: generalization (small sample size) Naturalistic observation Observing subject in natural environment Describe, can’t explain Descriptive report Ex: Nacirema (bruh i got trolled) Survey Questionnaire Interview More accurate: Questionnaire → anonymity Wording effect: ○ Social desirability bias → make urself socially accepted ○ Self-report bias → make urself look good Sampling ○ Sampling bias → choose a group that doesnt represent the target population Convenient sample → choose convenient group ○ Representative sample Know target population Random sample Every person in target population has an equal chance of being selected “Take all the names possible, put it in a hat, and randomly select from the hat” 1000 → acceptable sample size Stratified sample Sample size determination by ratio ○ Correlational ○ Experimental Mod 0.4 Correlational → DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION!!! Beware of “cause” ○ Measure of the relationship between two variables, how they change and predict each other  ○ Correlation Coefficient (r) How strong a relationship bt 2 variables is Strong relationship → -1 or 1 Weak relationship → 0 +1 proportional; -1 inversely proportional ○ Scatter plot Scatter dots in a plot Each dot = value of 2 variables Slope = relationship between 2 variables r value depends on how close dots tgt ○ Illusory correlation When u think correlation means a causation ○ Regression toward the mean Tendency for unusual results to fall back to the average ○ Natural relationships → no variable manipulation ○ Can’t replicate the study Experimental ○ Can manipulate variable ○ Figure out cause and effect relationships by manipulating variables 1-2 variables Isolate factors ○ Experimental group/condition Experiental Group - people exposed to treatment Control - no treatment Equally divide group → random assignment Random → “Take all the names possible, put it in a hat, and randomly select from the hat” Condition - situation ○ Placebo effect Expectation affects the results ○ Single-Blind Study The participants dont know what they got, organizers experimenters know Eliminate social desirability bias ○ Double-Blind Study Participants dont know, experimenters dont know, organizers know Eliminate Experimenter Bias Variables ○ Independent variable Variable researchers manipulate ○ Dependent variable Variable researchers measure Depends on the change in IV ○ Constant variable Variable researchers control to be the same  ○ Confounding/third/extraneous variable extra factor that affects the results → failed constant variable Validity ○ The extent to which an experiment tests what its supposed to test ○ Correlation is not causation ○ Correlation Mod 0.5 Questions → research design → measure → confounding variables → generalizability Two ways to measure behavior or mental processes ○ Quantitative research Numbers ○ Qualitative research Interview Intention of the laboratory environment ○ Simple reality ○ Recreate psychological phenomena in a controlled environment Experiment ○ Test theoretical principles ○ Generalized findings to public ○ Use resulting principles to explain everyday behaviors ○ Psych studies predict group behavior → not individual Why study animals ○ Protect animals IRB APA BPS Human Research ○ Do researchers stress or deceive participants? Yes How? Confederates → pretend participants, there to affect the experiment When? When benefits outweight the harm ○ Important ethical principles Informed consent (Assent for minors) Dont need for deception experiment but must have defriefing Protection from harm Confidentiality Debriefing For deception experiment ○ Ethics committee IRB Is psych research value-free? *NEIN Mod 0.6 Calculate validity of conclusions Descriptive & Inferential stats ○ D - just the sample ○ I - use sample to predict pop Descriptive stats ○ Describe ○ Histogram Manipulate Y-axis to create narrative that jensen is gay ○ Measure of central tendency Mean (avg) median mode → find the center Percentile rank ○ Data curve Bell curve (normal curve) Mean median mode in the middle if perfect Skewed distribution Positive and negative Mode Bimodal ○  Outlier More extreme the outlier more the mean is affected Affects mean Mean Mean dont mean shit in bimodal distribution Choose the right central tendency Normal distribution → mean Skewed → median Variation ○ How similar or diverse the scores are ○ Range Large range → inconsistent → dont want ○ Standard deviation How close the data is to the mean Small SD ✓ All of ur data is very close to the mean Big SD ✖ Data far from mean Mean can be same but standard deviation can be diff Inferential stats ○ Meta analysis Analyze data from multiple analyses ○ Statistical significance Likelihood that the results happened due to chance Null Hypothesis - when we believe theres no relationship bt variables  Easier to reject than prove so u reject the thing u dont want Alternative hypothesis P-value < 5% Less than 5% chance results are due to chance Effect size Pearson’s r (correlation coefficient r) ○ -1 to +1 Confidence interval Rang of scores that yk the pop is gna fall within Module 1 Mod 1.1 Nature vs Nurture ○ Socrates & Plato (nature) vs Aristotle (nurture) ○ Darwin (natural selection) ○ Evolutionary Psych & Behavior Genetics Evolutionary Pysch How did humans evolve? Behavior Genetics Small things that make us diff ○ Contemporary science → Nurture works on what nature provides Natural Selection ○ 4 basic ideas Variation Varied offspring compete for survival Inheritance some bio and behav vari incr the survival & repro chances in an envir Selection Ones that survive r more likely to pass on genes Time Characteristics change w time ○ Fox experiment Behavior can be changed over time Mutation ○ Mutation Random error in genes How r human genes diff from others Genes important  Genes ○ Dictate what u like and a bunch of behavior ○ Chromosome ○ DNA ○ Genes Basic units of hereditary info Multiple genes dictate a trait Phenotype Expressed genes Genotype All genes ur born with ○ Genome Instructions for how to build an organism ○ Behavior Genetics ○ Adoption creates: Genetic relatives → resemble more Environmental relatives → resemble less, but envir matters ○ Environment Give u space to change affects core values ○ Genetics affects personality Epigenetics ○ How much can envir affect gene expression ○ Genes are self-regulating (react on their own to envir) Mod 1.2 The Nervous System ○ ○ VROOM VROOM I FAST AS FUCK BOI ○ Electrochemical ○ Nervous system main parts CNS Brain & spinal chord Peripheral The rest (nerves n shi) ○ Nerves How messages travel Bundle of axons Connect CNS to rest of body Sensory neurons Outside-in Afferent: Info arrives from rest of body into CNS Motor neurons Efferent: info exits CNS to rest of body Interneurons In spinal cord ○ Peripheral nervous system Somatic NS Skeletal NS → muscles Autonomic NS (ANS) Automated functions Sympathetic NS ○ Excites arouses ○ Stimulate glucose (energy) ephenedrine ○ Stops digestion bladder Parasympathetic NS ○ Calms u down ○ ○ Stimulate digestion bladder control ○ Stop energy release SNS & PNS ○ Opponent process system → maintain homeostasis  CNS ○ Brain Neural networks Connected neuron chains ○ Spinal Chord 2 way info highway Reflex → automatic response to a stimuli Sensory & motor → connected by interneurons Simple reflex ○ ○ Hurt spine lower = better Mod 1.3a Neural Communication system ○ composed of Neuronss Nerve cells ○ Humans & animals info systems operate simularly  Neurons (nerve cell) ○ Dendrite → listen; receive info Axon → talk; send info Myelin sheath → protect axon Ouside of axon Made of fat Only some neurons have Speed up neural impulses → think faster Stops producing at 25 Nodes of Rnavier ○ Spaces bt myelin ○ Boost myelin info transfer ○ Multiple sclerosis ○ Myelin sheath break down ○ Cant control muscles ○ Impaired congnition, cant walk well Axon Terminal branches At the right Cell Body (soma) Cell life support center ○ Glial cells (Schwann cell) Feed neurons Neural Impulse ○ Resting neuron → normally at resting potential Charge outside neuron: positive → axon: sodium Inside: negative → axon → potassium  Salty Banana Selectively permeable Lets in potassium Keeps out sodium Structure: to have action potential ○ When do neurons transmit messages When neurons receive messages from other neurons Excitatory ○ Inhibitory ○ How does neuron decide when to fire When exitatory pass a threshold Action potential All or none response ○ Either fire or dont ○ ○ Then why r certain sensations stronger? More neurons fire ○ Action potential At the axon Brief electrical charge travel down axon 2-200 mi per hour When neuron fire Na Ions (+) rush in axon (-) → depolarization Refractory period  Kick Na back outside → Na-K pump Neuron cant fire Neurons dont touch Synapse ○ Gap bt neurons Neurotransmitters cross synapse and reach dendrites that receive Drugs → neurotransmitters stay in the synapse Neurotransmitters ○ Acetylcholine (AcH) Pain Myasthenia Grvis Can’t control muscles Learning Memories Alzheimers dont ‘ Affects Muscle contractions Learning Memory ○ Dopamine Rewards Affects Movement Learning Focus Emotion Too much → schizophrenia Too lil → Parkingsons ○ Serotonin Mood stabilizer Too lil → depression ○ Norepinephrine Stay awake  Too lil → depress ○ GABA Inhibitory ○ Glutamate Glucose → exitatory ○ Endorphins Reduce pain Too much → runner’s high ○ Substance P pain Drugs affect neurotransmission ○ Agonist Open receptor sites Block reuptake ○ Antagonist Blocks receptor sites Doesnt activate or block release of neurotransmitter Curare botulin Acetylcholine is blocked → no face movement  ○ ○ Endocrine System ○ Sloooooow system  ○ Hormones and blood ○ Slow to come out slow to fade ○  ○ Mod 1.3b Psychoactive drugs ○ Chemical substance that alters ur perception and mood Disorder ○ When something disrupts your life What affects a drug’s overall effect ○ Expectation ○ Tolerance/Neuroadaptation Addiction ○ Pyschological ○ Physical Withdrawal ○ Stress & discomfort when u withdraw 3 types of drugs ○ Depressant Slow down sympathetic nervous system Calm Alcohol Depressants Effects ○ Slowed neural processing ○ Reduced neuralgenesis ○ Kills neurons nerves connections bt nerves ○ Memory disruption ○ Reduced self awareness ○ Never drink when sad  ○ Expectancy effects Intoxication → alcohol use disorder Hangover ○ dehydration Barbiturates Tranquilizers Sleeping pills Take lots → impair memory & judgement Opioids (opiates) Euphoria Similar to tranquilizers morphine/fentanyl ○ Fentanyl is synthetic heroin/methadone ○ Methadone is synthetic ○ Heroin → feel invincible (hero) don’t feel pain ○ Without heroin → Codeine ○ Can lead to stopping endorphine production ○ Stimulant Speed up and excites mental and bodily processes Decrease appetite → Lose weight Incr food conversion to energy Quit stimulant → get fat Alert Caffeine Nicotine Amphetamines Pleasure Awake and high for days Crash → depressed → Hallucination Delusion ○ DELULULULULULULULU Methamphetamine Euphoria  Dopamine → feel motivated Risky Incr sexual drive Become depressed when not taking Cocaine Similar to dopamine Coke is dope Boost confidence Incr heart rate blood pressurs Decr oxygen Overdoes = death Crack → stronger ○ More intense high more intense crash ○ Violence Block reuptake Ecstasy/MDMA/Molly Feeling connection Happy for a long time Deflated mood after Violent outburst stuff yk Dehydration ○ Dance till ur dead ○ Hallucinogens/psychodelics Mind manifesting drugs Hallucinations Similar to near death experiences Marijuana Works cuz THC → from cannabis plant Hashish ○ Stronger Gateway drug  ○ Light drug that leads ppl to try other drugs Not addictive physically, addictive psychologically Munchies → eat everything LSD (‘cid) Chemically similar to serotonin Intense hallucinations Very unstable ○ euphoria ○ World pulsing ○ Out of body experience ○ Anxiety Shrooms Psilocybin Peyote Mescaline Cactus from mexico Mod 1.4a Franz Gall ○ Phrenology → wrong but lead to the idea of localization of brain Biological psych ○ Relating bio and psych Biopsychosocial approach ○  Neuroplasticity/brainplacisticity ○ Ur brain’s ability to change ○ Ways to study the brain ○ Electroencephalogram (EEG) Record waves/electrical activity on brain surface Electrodes on the scalp ○ Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Big machine Find malfunctioning neurons Find waves - diff from CT ○ CT Scan (computed tomography scan) CAT scan x rays of diff angles of ur brain Find damage ○ PET Scan (positron emission tomography scan) Radioactive glucose Glucose = energy See active parts of brain (brain uses 20% of ur caloric intake) Find brain tumors → tumors eat a lot ○ MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) See soft tissue Similar to CAT → magnetic instead of x ray ○ fMRI (functional MRI) Look at blood flow Find active part of brain Mod 1.4b BRIAN ○ ○ Lizard Brain → responsible for basic survival Brain weird  Brain stem crosses over ○ Left hemisphere controls right side of body ○ Right hemisphere controls left side of body ○ Pons slep ○ Medulla heartbeat Reticular formation ○ Arousal ○ Alert ○ Filters info Cerebellum ○ Voluntary movement ○ Balance ○ Non-verbal learning Things yk that u cant explain Discriminant bt sounds textures Inexplicable stuff like jensen’s slap shot Cuz wtf How It just doesnt work like that wot tf Ur gay The cerebellum is how i tell ur gay Intuitively Cuz u are Mouse Brain → feelings n shi Limbic system  ○ Amydgala ○ A for aggression ○ No fear Hippocampus ○ Memory formation ○ Drink alcohol → inhibit hippocampus Hypothalamus ○ Feeding ○ Fighting ○ Fleeing ○ Freaking ○ [nucleus accumbus] Reward center ○ Control pituitary gland Thalamus ○ Sensory info ○ No smell Monkey Brain → higher brain functions Cerebrum ○ Same as cerebral cortex Cerebral cortex ○ Thinking ○ Learning ○ All dat shi ○ Wondering why jensen’s slap shot is fucking cracked ○ Cerebral cortex → grey matter (dendrites, cell body) & white matter (axon)  ○ Larger cortext than other animals Larger = smarter Frontal lobe ○ In the front!!! Temporal lobe ○ Hearing ○ Tempo ○ Ears ○ Smell ish Occipital lobe ○ Vision ○ Sight Parietal lobe ○ On top ○ Parents ○ To beat ur children u need to stand above them ○ Sensation except sight and hearing and smell Motor cortex ○ Moving ○ Upper part of frontal lobe ○ More area dedicated to more important body parts Somatosensory cortex ○ parietal lobe ○ More area dedicated to more sensitive body parts Association areas ○ Every other cortex ○ Stimulate association area nothing happens Myth of 10% of brain is used  ○ Frontal lobes Prefrontal cortex moral compass Personality Phineas Gage ○ Parietal lobes ○ Temporal lobe Left hemisphere → language Brain damage ○ No regeneration ○ Preassigned areas Neuroplasticity Neurogenesis Lateralization Corpus callosum ○ Left and right hemisphere doesnt touch, connected by corpus callosum ○ Vogel n Bogen cut it and nothing happened but seizures stopped ○ Sperry n Myers n Gazzaniga’s split brain experiments ○ Split brain patients LorD of the RingS Left (goes to right) Draw Right (goes to left) Say Mod 1.5a Consciousness ○ Consciousness as sensory awareness Outside urself ○ Consciousness as direct inner awareness Inside urself ○ Consciousness as sense of self Altered states of consciousness ○ Day dreaming ○ Sleep ○ Trippin ○ Crashing tf out Cognitive neuroscience ○ Mental processes linked w study of brain activity Dual processing: the two-track mind ○ Mind has conscious (high road) and unconscious (low road) ○ Conscious (high road) Sequential processing New or difficult tasks ○ Unconscious (low road) Parallel processing Easy tasks ○ Blindsight can perceive the location of an object despite being cortically blind Mod 1.5b Cycles ○ Ultradian Rhythm - more than once per day ○ Infradian Rhythm - once a month ○ Circadian Rhythm - once a day Sleep ○ Natural loss of consciousness ○ Brain waves Beta → Alpha → Theta → Delta Beta: Alert Alpha: Relaxing Theta: Sleeping Delta: Deep sleep Measure w EEG Sleep stages ○ NREM (Non-rapid-eye-movement) NREM-1: lightest sleep; Theta Hypnogogic sensations  NREM-2: Theta have random bursts of activity Sleep spindles NREM-3: Entering Delta waves ○ REM (Rapid-eye-movement) Fast random waves, similar to stage 1 Paradoxical sleep Brain awake body sleeping ○ Awake → N1 → N2 → N3 → N2 →REM → 3 → 2 → REM → 3 → 2 → REM… REM gets longer and longer ○ Sleep Paralysis When ur brain is awake but ur body isnt ○ Sleep has 90 min cycles ○ Should have 5 cycles per night Sleep patterns ○ SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) Activated by light Reports to hypothalamus → penial gland → dont release melatonin Jet lag → stimulate SCN to stay awake → go touch grass Sleep theories ○ Diff animals have diff sleep patterns → diff life styles ○ Why do we sleep? Protection Restore body and brain tissue and immune system Free radicals → toxins that kill neurons Consolidate memories NREM 3 Creative thinking Growth Conserve energy Mod 1.5c Sleep loss ○ Sleep debt ○ Emotional ○ Depression ○ Low-performance ○ Weight gain Ghrelin, Leptin, cortisol ○ Suppress immune system ○ Boredom ≠ Sleep; Boredom = fidgeting Major Sleep Disorders ○ Insomnia ○ Narcolepsy Orexin  Arousal = sleep ○ Sleep apnea ○ Night terrors Nightmares happen during REM, night terrors happen during NREM 3 ○ Sleepwalking (Somnambulism) NREM 3 ○ REM sleep behavior disorder Brain stem is moving ○ Sleep paralysis Dreams ○ Hallucination of the mind in REM ○ Best recall of dream → wake up during REM ○ What r dreams usually about Recent stuff Negative Preoccupations ○ Envir and dreams Yes ○ Why do we dream We dont rly know Theories Freud’s wish fulfillment theory ○ Manifest (actual thing) and latent (hidden meaning) content Consolidation Theory ○ Dreams help us consolidate memories Activation synthesis ○ REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random memories Mod 1.6a Sensation vs Perception ○ Sensation → 5 senses Info up to spine to brain stem to thalamus ○ Perception → how we interpret info Prosopagnosia ○ Face blindness Top-down processing ○ Using past experiences to process stuff outside ○ Has experience Bottom-up processing ○ Outside senses coming in to be perceived ○ No experience Transduction (transduce) ○ Receive sensory stimulation  ○ Transform into neural impulses ○ Deliver message to brain Psychophysics ○ Study of relation btw stimuli from outside affect our understanding of them Threshold ○ Absolute threshold Minimum amount of stimulus u can sense 50% of the time Low enough to help us use our sense in the world but not so low to be overloaded with useless info Signal detection theory Subliminal messages Priming Dont work in the long term ○ Difference threshold  Minimum amount of difference you can detect bt 2 stimuli 50% of the time Pain → low difference threshold Weber’s law Bigger the stimuli, larger the change there needs to be for you to detect it Sensory adaptation ○ So much of one stimuli that ur body ignore it Emotion adaptation ○ Rbf We perceive the world not exactly as it is, but as it is useful for us to perceive it Mod 1.6b Visual dominance ○ Vision is ur most dominant sense Light energy ○ Electromagnetic energy spectrum ○ Can’t see other parts of the spectrum cuz absolute threshold ○ Wavelength → color Distance bt peaks ○ Amplitude → intensity Higher amplitude = more intense ○ Red for traffic light Low amplitude, high wavelength → scatter less reach farther Eyes  Light → Cornea → pupil & iris → lens (accomodation) → retina (photoreceptors: rods & cones) Myopia ○ Nearsighted Retina ○ Y dont we usually see retina blood vessels ○ Blind spot → where optic nerve is → can’t see anything there Y dont know u have a blindspot cuz u visual field of other eye helps ○ Fovea → area on the retina where u see in HD Has lots of cones → see color What happens to vision when photoreceptors r damaged ○ Brain would not receive info for vision Bright light adaptation is faster than dark Blink when u move to light envir ○ Lower the amount of light entering at once Color processing ○ Young-Helmholtz tichromatic theory ○ Color blindness Damage or no cones ○ Color deficient vision Dichromatic vision ○ Afterimage Retinal fatigue Cones on retina get tired Feature detection ○ Feature detectors Detect specific features ○ → supercell clusters Perceive feature detector info ○ Parallel processing Unconsciously analyzing info Blindsight Prosopagnosia → supercell clusters broken Mod 1.6c Hearing (Audition) ○ Thru air ○ Thru bone Y is ur own voice weird in a recording ○ Normally → bone & air ○ Tape → air Soundwave = vibrations in the air ○ Pitch → how sharp (short fast wave) or how deep (long slow wave) Frequency (hz)  ○ ○ Amplitude → strong sound (tall waves) or soft sound (short waves) Intensity (decibels dB) Normal convo = 60 dB (abs threshold = 0 dB) Hearing sound ○ Auditory lobe ○ Ears transduce info ○ ○ Soundwaves → Outer Ear { Pinna (collect sound waves)→ Auditory Canal (just go thru) → ear drum (vibrate) } → Middle Ear { hammer, anvil, stirrup (amplify sound) } → Inner Ear { oval window (vibrate) → cochlea (fluids ripple in a direction) → basilar membrane (hair cells bend n trigger nearby axons) → auditory nerve (gets formed from axons) }→ thalamus Hearing loss ○ Conduction hearing loss Damage to middle ear Hearing aid ○ Sensorineural hearing loss (nerve deafness) Damage to inner ear Hair cells in cochlea Auditory nerve Perceiving loudness ○ Basilar membrane hair cells Fire or dont fire Fire more = loudere Peceiving pitch ○ Place theory (place coding) Only works well for high pitched sounds ○ Frequency theory (temporal coding) Low-pitched sounds Volley theory ○ Firing in alternate terms  ○ Impulses go into the brain as fast as they come in Locating sounds ○ Intensity ○ Speed (difference threshold) Which ear receives sound first ○ Which aspect of the ears allow us to locate sound (sterophonic hearing) ○ Lose all hearing in one ear Cant find sound Mod 1.6d Touch - Tactile Sense ○ Types of skin Hairy Movement & pressure Glabrous Need to be more sensitive ○ Types of touch Pressure Temp Cold & Warm → Cold + Warm = Touch Pain PAIN ○ Nociceptors → free nerve endings Detect things that could cause u pain Not part of any system, they are the system  Nociceptors → ○ Gate control theory Small and large nerve fibres Injury → small nerve fibres → gate opens → pain info sent to brain Stop this: increase pressure Prostaglandins  Endorphins ○ Phatom limb Taste (Gustation) ○ 6 flavors → sweet salty sour bitter umami oleogustus ○ Spicy is pain, minty is pain, carbonation is pain ○ Survival Taste exposure phenomenon Taste buds Chem sense Smell ○ Olfactory Receptor cells Chem sense ○ Olfactory bulb ○ Olfactory nerve ○ Doesnt go thru thalamus ○ Pheromones ○ Anosmia ○ Animals Diff sense of smell ○ Culture Affect what smells we like Body position and movement ○ Kinesthesis Proprioceptors Lose kinesthesis u cant move Joints, tendons, muscles Vestibular sense ○ Tells u if ur upright ○ Orientation ○ Semicircular canals + vestibular sacs Fluids If ur upside down → fluids upside down → go thru hairs → know ur upside down Dizzy: fluids turning What prevents u from falling over when u stand up Sensory interaction ○ One sense affect another sense ○ Smell + taste + texture + temp = flavor ○ McGurk Effect  Interaction of other senses ○ Embodied cognition ○ Synesthesia Module 2 Mod 2.1a Attention ○ Selective attention Small focus area of attention Cocktail party effect ○ Go to a party (very noisy), only listen to one voice ○ Inattentional blindness Invisible gorilla ○ Change blindness The door study Limited attention and visual memory ○ Choice blindness The jam study When u dont rly care about the choices u make ○ Pop-out Expectation ○ Perceptual set Mental predisposition that affects how u experience the world Halo effect ○ Schemas Past experiences ○ Context The situation Mod 2.1b Perpetual organization ○ Gestalt principle The Whole > ∑(parts) See something as a whole rather than assembled components Necker cube  Form Perception ○ Figure-ground ○ Grouping Proximity Similarity Continuity Closure Depth perception ○ Visual cliff - depth perception could be innate ○ Binocular percpeption ○ Retinal disparity ○ Monocular cues Linear perspective Clearness/ texture gradient Relative clarity Overlap/interposition Relative size Shadow & highlights Relative motion/motion parallax Relative height Motion perception ○ Stroboscopic movement Stop motion 24fps Continuity ○ Phi phenomenon Light blinking ○ Autokinetic effect Perceptual constancy ○ Color constancy ○ Brightness constancy ○ Size constancy Perceptual interpretation ○ Restored vision Shirl Jennings ○ Critical period for learning sight Mod 2.2a Thinking and Concepts ○ Symbols Everything thats not the actual thing is a symbol Words Signs ○ Concepts Organize similar things in groups Prototype Thinking creatively ○ Convergent thinking ○ Divergent thinking ○ Metacognition Reflection ○ Mod 2.2b Problem Solving ○ Executive functions ○ Algorithm → guarantees a solution → slow ahh ○ Heuristics → trail and error → fast → prone to error ○ Insight Frontal lobe AHA moment Right temporal lobe ○ Intuition → from collection of experiences Monty Hall problem ○ Representativeness Heuristic Prototype ○ Mod 2.3 Memory: persistence of learning ○ Encoding ○ Storage ○ Retrieval Measures of retention ○ Recall  ○ Recognition ○ Relearning Hermann Ebbinghaus relearning experiment ○ Forced himself to memorize a list of consonant-vowel-consonant words Not actual words → prevent relearning cuz he alr knows words Overlearning ○ Learn a lot ○ Learn even when you already learned Memory Models ○ Connectionism Connect things! ○ atkinson and shiffrin’s 3 stage multi-store model Sensory memory Short term memory Long term memory ○ ○ STM ←→ Working memory Working memory is an active storage Central executive Phonological loop Visuospatial sketchpad Mod 2.3 Dual Track Mind  ○ Automatic processing ○ Implicit memory (nondeclarative) Formed without conscious recall Hard to explain to other people Procedural memory ○ Automatically process Space Time Frequency Effortful processing ○ Explicit memories Formed with conscious recall Can become automatic Episodic & somatic episodic memory ○ Episodes in ur life ○ Tiny story ○ Flashbulb memory Somatic memory ○ Facts, dates ○ Can be stories but not ur own ○ General knowledge Mod 2.4 Encoding sensory memory ○ Memory traces Visual Iconic Eidetic Acoustic Echoic memory Short-term memory capacity ○ How much info can ur short term memory hold 7 ± 2 pieces of info ○ Multitask → can do it with dual processing Multitask using conscious processing → task switching Effortful processing strategies ○ Chunking Meaningful groups ○ Mnemonics Useful patterns Peg-word systems Method of loci ○ Hierarchies Help recall Distributed practice ○ Spacing effect ○ Testing effect Constant review is the key to success Levels of processing ○ Shallow processing (maintenance rehearsal) Structural encoding Phonemic encoding ○ Deep processing (elaborative rehearsal) Semantic encoding Mod 2.5 Explicit memory system ○ Semantic memories General knowledge ○ Episodic memories Past experiences ○ Frontal lobe Left: languages Right: images ○ Hippocampus  Save explicit memories Left: language Right: images ○ Active in deep sleep: cerebral cortex & hippocampus alternate → memory consolidation Implicit memory system ○ Joseph LeDoux LeDoux Experiement: implicit memories ○ Cerebellum and basil ganglia → responsible for implicit memories ○ Infantile amnesia Amydgala, Emotions, Memory ○ Stress is good for focus ○ Stress hormones affect amygdala ○ Extremely emotional events → flashbulb Trauma → stress hormones → glucose → energy → memory consolidation → flashbulb Mod 2.6 Retrieve memories Retrieval cues ○ Spider web Retrieving memory ○ Retrospective memory ○ Prospective memory Priming ○ Unconscious associations Context dependent memory ○ Smell or place State-dependent memory ○ High and drunk and sober ○ Mood congruent memory Serial position effect ○ Remember 1st and last things first Retrieval practice strats ○ Metacognition ○ Testing effect Mod 2.7 Forgetting ○ Useful ○ Discard useless info ○ Help us focus on important things ○ Solomon Shereshevky Can remember can’t use  ○ Jill Price Can’t forget bad things Highly superior autobiographical memory Amnesia ○ Retrograde amnesia Cant remember old memories cuz brain damage ○ Anterograde amnesia Can’t form new memories cuz brain damage No explicit memories Yes implicit memories Procedural memory Classical conditioning Clive Wearing H.M. (Henry Molaison) Encoding failure ○ Displacement → replacing short term memory contents with new info ○ Age: older → less efficient in encoding memories → parts of brain get bad ○ selective attention Storage decay ○ Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve ○ ○ Memory traces disappear in brain  ○ Retrieval failure ○ Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (TOT) ○ ○ Interference Proactive Old affect new Retroactive New affect old ○ Motivative forgetting (fake) Forget stuff thats harmful Defensive mechanism Repression Memory construction errors ○ 100% accurate memory not possible ○ Constructed memory ○ Reconsolidation → Everytime u think about something it changes a bit ○ Car crash study Framing change ppls memories ○ Misinformation effect ○ Source amnesia déjà vu ○ False memories “Mandela effect” ○ Baby memory experiment  Improve memory ○ Rehearse repeatedly ○ Make material meaningful ○ Activate retrieval cues ○ Use mnemonic devices Mod 2.8 Intelligence ○ Solve problems ○ Learn from experience ○ Adapt using knowledge Spearman → General intelligence (g factor) ○ High g factor → high s factor specific factors: spatial, mechanical, verbal, numerical ○ ○ Factor analysis A statistical method that identifies common causes of variance in different tests CHC (Cattell-Horn-Carroll) ○ Fluid Intelligence (Gf) → (General Fluid) Solving new problems using logic in new situations, worse w age ○ Crystallized intelligence (Ge) Using prior knowledge and past experiences, improve w age  Theories of multiple intelligences ○ Gardner’s theory + existential ○ Sternerg’s theory Savant syndrome ○ Limited general intelligence but has one specific really good skill  ○ Recipe for success ○ Talent + Grit Emotional intelligence ○ Unconcious ○ 4 components of EQ Perceiving Understanding Using Managing ○ High EQ = good at managing ur emotions Mod 2.8b Origins of intelligence testing ○ Francis Galton → statistically measure intelligence Measure IQ Intelligence is inherited Eugenics man ○ Alfred Binet Intelligence testing → france schools Only children Chronological age vs Mental age Intelligence is environmental ○ Lewis Terman Standford Binet Made Binet’s test for adults “Superior adults” 𝑀𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒 𝐼𝑄 = 𝐶ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑔𝑒 × 100 Only works for children Eugenics Modern intelligence test ○ David Wechsler → modern intelligence test Wechseler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS-5) 16 yr and above  Subtests Verbal Performance Differences (from Stanford Binet) Not comparing mental chronological age Compare w others Mod 2.8c Principles of Test Contruction → Psychometrics ○ Psychometric properties (abilities attitude traits) Standardized (envir, test) Needs to pretest → consisted w norm group Norm group → target pop Reliable Validity ○ Content validity ○ Construct validity ○ Predictive validity ○ NOT face validity Stability or Change ○ Cross Sectional Study Intelligence decr w age ○ Longitudinal study Intelligence is stable Aging & intelligence ○ Gf declines as u age ○ Ge increases as u age Social reasoning incr Heredity & intelligence ○ 50-80% ○ Heritability  Amount of variation among indivs in a group that we can attribute to genes Difference cuz of genes and not environment ○ Intelligence is somewhat inherited ○ Envir affects intelligence ○ The older u are the more similar in intelligence u r to ur parents Gene-Envir interactions ○ Epigenetics ○ Neglect negatively affects intelligence of infant ○ MCVICKER HUNT!!!!!!! → tutored human enrichment Nurture matters ○ Extra classes wont make ur kid extra smart Mozart effect U cant increase intelligence Growth mindset ○ Motivation Affects ur ability to do better ○ Carol Dweck research on students Performance orientation (fixed mindset → believe intelligence is nature) Mastery orientation (growth mindset → believe intelligence is nurture) Mod 2.8d Gender related similarity & differences ○ Mental ability Ovr general intelligence scores r the same Females better: verbal, emotional, finding things Males better: math, spatial ○ Cuz evolution Racial & ethnic similarities & differences ○ Racial & ethnic groups differ in avg intelligence scores ○ High scoring ppl & groups r more likely to get high lvls of education & income ○ Race does NOT affect intelligence Vary cuz environment ○ Race can’t be clearly defined ○ Sean wants to say the n word so bad ○ Racial differences Access to knowledge Wealth Eras of remarkable achievement ○ Aptitude scores bt black & white students incr from grades 8-12 but decr once theyre in the same university Grades 8-12: diff school The question of bias ○ Innate diff and performance diff caused by cultural differences  ○ Chitling test Show old iq tests are culturally biased ○ Test takers expectations Stereotype threat A self confirming concern that you will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype Only happens when reminded of it → performance decr Stereotype lift Good stereotype incr ur performance Obama effect.......................................................