Psychological-Assessment-Midterm-Notes (1).pdf

Psychological Assessment | Cebu Normal University | Ms. Eva Marie P. Gacasan Process Process May be individual or group,...

Psychological Assessment | Cebu Normal University | Ms. Eva Marie P. Gacasan Process Process May be individual or group, Highly individualized; more in nature; Simply involved typically focuses on how an UNIT 1 Part 1 adding up the number of individual process rather correct answers or the than simply the result of Ever since we were born we are subjected to a lot of tests. number of certain types of processing.  Birth: Apgar test (Appearance-Pulse-Grimace-Activity- responses with little if any Respiration) - Apgar- given to new born infants to regard for how or the determine their health mechanics of such content  Infancy: Developmental disabilities tests Role of Evaluator Role of Evaluator  Childhood: School readiness tests, learning disabilities Tester is not key to the Assessor is key to the tests, giftedness tests process; can be substituted process.  Adolescence, Young adulthood: Scholastic aptitude test, Skill of Evaluator Skill of Evaluator achievement tests, job screening tests, security clearance Technician-like skills in Educated selection of tool; tests, marital compatibility tests, personality tests administering, scoring, and skill in evaluation, thoughtful  Late adulthood: Neuropsychological tests, ECG, EEG interpreting organization and integration  Death: Autopsy (medical/ Psychological) of data What does this say about tests and assessments? Outcome Outcome  They are a part of life and society. Yields a score or series of Entails a logical problem- test scores solving approach that CHAPTER OUTLINE integrates many sources of What are Testing and Assessment? data to answer the referral question.  Definitions and Distinctions  Varieties of Assessment Varieties of Assessment  Process of Assessment  Therapeutic Psychological Assessment - assess the  Approaches of Assessment condition of the individual, to work for therapy and for Tools of Psychological Assessment the improvement of the condition of the individual  Test  Educational Assessment - School-related outcomes,  Interview  Retrospective Assessment - What we can construct from  Portfolio the past, a person's childhood/early life  Case History  Remote Assessment - Very popular right now bc of the  Behavioral pandemic. *Distance assessment*  Observation -For someone to do this, assessee must be aware of the  Role-Play Tests ethics involved in this practice.  Computers  Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA) - "In the moment assessment" requires a tool (e.g. smart phones)  Others The interest might be to measure the movement, pattern Who, What, How, Why And Where? of activity. Phones can provide real time info  Who are the Parties?  In What Types of Settings are Assessments Conducted Process of Assessment and Why? 1. Referral How are Assessments Conducted? 2. May have prior meetings with the assesse or others Where to Go for Authoritative Information? before the formal assessment 3. Preparation of assessment through selection of tools of WHAT ARE TESTING AND ASSESSMENT? assessment Psychological Testing – is the process of administering, scoring, 4. Formal assessment and interpreting psychological tests; the purpose of which is to 5. Writing the psychological report obtain a sample of behavior. 6. Feedback, and more feedback sessions with the assesse - If we administer a test to an individual, its bc this test is and/or interested parties capable of providing information about the behavior your are interested in about a person. Approaches of Assessment  Collaborative psychological assessment - the assessor Psychological Assessment – is a problem solving process that and assessee may work as “partners” from initial contact can take many different forms, e.g. tests, interviews, case studies, through final feedback behavioural observation, and specially designed apparatuses and  Therapeutic psychological assessment - therapeutic self- measurement procedures. discovery and new understandings are encouraged - the broader concept, psych testing is just part of it. There throughout the assessment process are other ways we can assess an individual apart from  Dynamic assessment – involves assessment-intervention- tests. assessment TOOLS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSESSMENT Psychological Testing Psychological Assessment 1. Test – measuring device or procedure Objective Objective - Content – subject matter To obtain some gauge, To answer a referral numerical in nature, with question, solve a problem, or - Format – form, plan, structure, arrangement, and layout regard to an ability or arrive at a decision through of test items; time limit; form of test administration e.g. attribute the use of tools of computerized, pencil and paper, or some other form; evaluation. * The data is form of software e.g. PC or MAC highly consequential to the - Administration procedures – e.g. individual/group; decision making, it will be with/without test administrator used further to make - Scoring and Interpretation Procedures decisions Compiled by: Danica Rose A. Rayla BS Psychology III-D  Psychological Assessment | Cebu Normal University | Ms. Eva Marie P. Gacasan o Score – code or summary statement, usually - Purpose is for assessment and measuring outcome; used numerical, that reflects the evaluation of in corporate, industrial, organization, or military context; performance on a test, task, interview, or some popular for managerial and leadership skills assessment. other sample of behavior. Low cost, only relies on facilitator’s imaginative skills o Scoring – process of assigning such evaluative - Nature – live scenarious with live actors or computer- codes or statements to performance on those generated simulations tests, tasks, interviews, or other behavior samples; simple summing or responses or 7. Computer as Tools elaborate - Generating simulations o Scoring varies depending on the test and other factors. Eg. school system (number/letter - For test administration, scoring, and interpretation grading) o Local Processing – on-site o Central processing – at some central location - Technical quality – psychometric soundness (transported through teleprocessing, mail, or o Reliability – consistent courier) o Validity – accurate o Simple Scoring report – mere listing or scores o Utility – practical o Extended scoring report – includes statistical - Psychometric – measurement that is psychological in analyses of the testtaker’s performance nature o Interpretive report – inclusion numerical or - Psychometrist/Psychometrician – a professional who narrative interpretive statements uses, analyzes, and interprets psychological test data o Consultative report – may provide expert opinion concerning analysis of data 2. Interview – direct communication and reciprocal o Integrative report – employ previously exchange. Verbal or nonverbal behavior is also collected data (e.g. medication records, or observed. behavioural observation data) into the report - Purpose is for diagnosis, treatment, selection or other o CAPA (Computer-Assisted Psychological decisions Assessment) 0 the assistance is given to the test o E.g. intake interview, panel/board interview, user/administrator not the testtaker. Example: motivational interview Q-Interactive from Pearson Assessments. It uses - Length two iPads connected by Bluetooth, one for the - Nature – face to face; telephone; internet chat; SMS test user, other for the testtaker. o CAT (Computer Adaptive Testing)- adaptive to - Pacing of interviews, rapport with interviewees, the test taker’s ability or test-taking pattern. genuineness, empathy, and humor May provide score feedback as a way of motivating the test taker. 3. Portfolio – work products e.g. paper, canvas, film, video, Advantages of computer-assisted assessment/ use of internet audio, or some other medium - Test administrators have greater access to potential users - Authentic assessment – e.g. student’s research skills will because of the global reach of the Internet need to be demonstrated in having conducted and completed a research; a teacher applicant will need to - Scoring and interpretation of test data tend to be submit lesson plans, published writings, and visual aids quicker than for paper-and-pencil tests - Professional websites; Linkedin - Costs associated with Internet testing tend to be lower than costs associated with paper-and-pencil tests 4. Case History Data – records, transcripts, pictures, or - More convenient to isolated populations including with other forms that provide archival, official, or even disabilities informal information about the assesse - “Greener” – conserve paper, shipping materials, etc. - Sourced from schools, hospitals, employers, religious - Less chance of scoring errors institutions, criminal justice system, social media - Main Issue: Test-client integrity - Letters/written correspondence, photos/family albums, newspapers and magazines, home videos, audiotapes, 8. Other tools work samples, artwork, doodlings, etc.  The use of videos, and virtual reality (VR) technology in - Critical to neuropsychological evaluations ; threat assessment – e.g. responding to sexual harassment in the assessments (intelligence work) workplace, type of emergencies; diagnosis and - Case study or case history – report or illustrative account treatment plan for clients concerning a person or an event that was compiled on  The use of thermometers, blood pressure monitor, other the basis of case history data. biofeedback equipment  The use of less common instruments e.g. penile 5. Behavior Observation plethysmograph to measure male sexual arousal and - Monitoring the actions of others by visual or electronic useful for diagnosis and treatment of sexual predators means while recording quantitative or qualitative information WHO, WHAT, WHY AND WHERE - Purpose: diagnostic aid/ therapeutic aid e.g. inpatient facilities, behavioural research, laboratories, classrooms, Who are the parties? prisons, group homes, etc  Test developers and Publishers - creation of new tests - Nature – naturalistic vs controlled observation for commercial and research purposes; and for o Naturalistic – observed in his/her natural refinements and modifications of existing tests; environment o Responsible test development including test o Controlled – lab setting where situation is construction and evaluation, test administration controlled/manipulated. Useful if observing and use, and special applications of tests certain scenarios (minorities) is covered in the detailed document 6. Role-Play Test “ the Standards,” or Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing written jointly by the - Acting an improvised or partially improvised part in a American Educational Research Association, simulated situation American Psychological Association, and the  Psychological Assessment | Cebu Normal University | Ms. Eva Marie P. Gacasan National Council on Measurement in Education  Test should be stored in a way that reasonably ensures (NCME) in 1954, revised in 1966, 1974, 1985, that its specific contents will not be made known to the 1999 and 2014. testtaker in advance.  Test Users - clinicians, counselors, school psychologists,  Ensure that a prepared and suitably trained person human resources personnel, consumer psychologists, administers the test properly i.e. familiarity of the test experimental and other research psychologists; The materials (e.g. stopwatch, pencils, test protocols) and Standards have identified who are the qualified test procedures. Test protocols means form or sheet or user and have access to (be permitted to purchase booklet on which responses are entered; may also refer psychological tests and assessments. o a set of test- or assessment-related procedures e.g. “The examiner dutifully followed the complete protocol  Testtaker/Assessee – anyone who is the subject of for the stress interview.” assessment or evaluation  Ensure that the testing room is suitable and conducive to o Psychological Autopsy – reconstruction of a testing with excessive noise, heat, cold, interruptions, deceased individual’s psychological profile on glaring sunlight, crowding, inadequate ventilation, etc. the basis of archival records, artifacts, and are avoided if possible. interviews previously conducted with the During: assessee or others  Rapport or working relationship between the examiner  Society at Large – Need to organize or systematized in and examinee must be established but not compromise some way, the many-faceted complexity of individual any test rules of the test administration instructions differences. E.g. Who is schizophrenic? Do we have to After: create more special education schools?  Safeguard the test protocols after use.  Other parties – organizations, companies, government  Convey the test results as clearly as possible. agencies  Report any testing incident if there is.  Test scoring and interpretation must be in accordance In What Types of Settings Are Assessments Conducted and Why? with established procedures and ethical guidelines.  Educational Settings – for diagnostic or informal Assessment of People With Disabilities evaluation  Some laws mandate “alternate assessment” to Educational Examples Antecedent Respective differently abled ; typically accomplished by test Experience Uses accommodation, or the adaptation of a test, procedure, Achievement Classroom Standardized Terminal or situation, or the substitution of one test for another, to Test tests, set of evaluation/ make the assessment more suitable for an assessee with Scholastic experiences course exceptional needs. Example: visual aids (big texts, aptitude test, e.g. course completion braille, hearing aids such as sign language) Graduate evaluation record Where to Go for Authorative Information examination  Test catalogues – distributed by test publishers; just brief Aptitude Test General Cumulative Predict descriptions of tests intelligence influence of subsequent  Test manuals – detailed information of tests provided tests, multiple multiplicity of performance only to professionals aptitude experiences  Professional books – written by more experienced batteries, in daily living practitioners and test users to guide a particular and special audience aptitude tests  Reference volumes - inventories of tests e.g. Mental  Clinical Settings – public, private, and military hospitals, Measurements Yearbook, Tests in Print inpatient and outpatient clinics, private-practice  Journal Articles – reviews of tests and its psychometric consulting rooms, schools, and other institutions soundness and how they are used in applied context  Counseling Settings – schools, prisons, governmental or  Online databases – e.g. Educational Resources privately owned institutions Information Center (ERIC); PsycINFO (a database of  Geriatric Settings – quality of life (stress, loneliness, abstracts) satisfaction, living conditions, social support, etc.  Other sources – e.g. Directory of Unpublished  Business and Military Settings – selection, promotion, Experimental Mental Measures transfer, job satisfaction, eligibility for further training; marketing and brands  Governmental and Organizational Credentialing – government licensing, etc.  Academic Research Settings  Other Settings In sum, assessments are conducted for several reasons  Selection for school work  Diagnosis, treatment  Legal Judgement How are Assessments Conducted? Test users takes responsibility Before, During and After the test Before:  Tests selected and used must be appropriate for the individual being tested.  Cebu Normal University BS Psychology Dr. Eva Marie Gacasan,PhD of pull/squeeze, etc. can be measured in his Anthropometric Laboratory. UNIT 02: HISTORICAL, CULTURAL, AND ETHICAL  This led to interest in measurement of CONSIDERATIONS psychology-related variables Outline  Wilhem Max Wundt (1832- 1920) – German A historical perspective o Founded the 1st experimental psychology  Antiquity to the Nineteenth Century laboratory at Unviersity of Leipzig, Germany o Father of psychology  The Twentieth Century o Formulated a general description of human Culture and Assessment abilities with respect to variables such as  Evolving Interest in Culture-Related Assessment reaction time, perception, and attention span.  Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment o Focused on questions relations to how people  Tests and Group Membership were similar than different. Legal and Ethical Considerations o Also focused on eliminating errors caused by  The Concerns of the Public extraneous variables to conclude that  The Concerns of the Profession differences can only be attributed to testtaker  The Rights of Testtakers differences rather than differences in conditions.  In modern psych: We try to A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE limit/reduce/eliminate the impact of Psychological Test extraneous variables in our research. - The need to asses individual differences: abilities,  James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944) – American personality and behavior o Student of Wundt o Psychology as the science of variation o Became associated with Galton and greatly o Psychological testing is part of the science of influenced by him psychology which is the science of variation o Coined the term Mental Test in 1890 - The basic tools of counsellors, psychologists, and other o Credited as getting the mental testing allied professionals in gathering essential data that help underway in America the clients to understand themselves. o Trained many psychologists, founded number - These test measures the 3 processes: mental, emotional, of publications, and the Psychological behavioural Corporation which had 20 leading Psychologists as its directors – the goal of the Antiquity to the 19th Century corporation was the advancement and the Ancient China (2200BC: Civil Service System) promotion of the useful applications of - Instituted by the Chinese emperor to determine if his psychology. officials were fit to perform their governmental duties, o During James Cattell's life time, psychology just who would obtain government jobs. started. The people dont know yet about the - Carried so much privileges and entitlements when field. We credit him for promoting the field passing the imperial examination and obtaining a and educate the public about psychology and government position (e.g. high social status, wearing of aits application special garb, exemption from taxes and torture)  Charles Spearman (1863-1945) – English/British - Vehicle to study individual differences o Originating the concept of test reliability - Proficiency in music, archery, horsemanship, writing, and o Built the mathematical framework for the arithmetic. Also important were subjects in agriculture, statistical technique of factor analysis geography, revenue, civil law, and military strategy  Spearman’s raw  Victor Henri (1872-1940) – French 19th Century – Tests were based on sound scientific research o Collaborated with Alfred Binet on how mental  Charles Darwin (1809-1882) tests can be used to measure higher mental o Advanced the idea of individual differences processes with his notion of natural selection that chance  Emil Kraeplin (1856- 1926) variation or difference in species were selected o Word association technique as a forma test or rejected by nature according to adaptivity o Father of modern scientific psychiatry and survival value o Grouped diseases together based on o Credited to have spurred the interest on symptoms individual differences  Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) o Those who possess superior traits has more o “little known founder of clinical psychology” chances of survival. o Coined the term Clinical Psychology and o Highlighted: individual differences. founded the first psychological clinic at US in  Sir Francis Galton (1822- 1911) the University of Pennsylvania o half cousin of Darwin *In sum, much of the 19th century (1800 – 1900) testing is o Extremely influential contributor of psychological in nature - measurement of sensory abilities, measurement reaction time and the like. However, testing had yet no applied o Contributed to the development of many value. contemporary tools of psychological assessment including questionnaires, rating scales, self- The 20th Century (1900-2000) - Birth of the first formal tests of report inventories intelligence o Known for his research on heredity (with sweet  Alfred Binet (1857-1911) peas) o Binet & Simon, 1905 - published 30-item o Credited to have started the statistical analysis “measuring scale of intelligence” designed to of coefficient of correlation help identify mentally retarded schoolchildren o Displayed how variables such as height, o The Binet test underwent several revisions and weight, arm span, breathing capacity, strength translations and in the process launched the intelligence testing movement & the clinical  Cebu Normal University BS Psychology Dr. Eva Marie Gacasan,PhD testing movement. Psychological tests spread CULTURE AND ASSESSMENT from school to hospitals, clinics, courts, Culture is defined as the socially transmitted behavior patterns, reformatories, and prisons. beliefs, and products of work of a particular population, o Offshoot of the Binet test is group intelligence community, or group of people (Cohen, 1994). Culture is very test which was used in World War I and II influential. Our culture influences how we think, feel, behave, and o They valued the IQ test as a test that will be relate with others. We carry with us our culture. given to a lot of people in such a short time - Concerns on increasing sensitivity on considerations of during the War. This test screened who are cultural issues in the many different aspects of capable to go in a war. measurements from the test development to use.  David Wechsler in 1939 – measure adult intelligence - Tests being administered improperly to people from o Defined intelligence as the aggregate or different cultures – test biased with regards to tace, global capacity of the individual to act gender, or culture purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal o effectively with his environment Culture-specific tests were designed to use with people from one o Originally christened the Wechsler-Bellevue culture but not from another (e.g. Standford-Binet Intelligence Intelligence Scale that became Weschler Adult Scale) Intelligence Scale (WAIS)  Bellevue – the hospital where he Steps that Test Publishers are now taking to ensure that a test for worked in NY national use/ general use is indeed suitable for such use: Widespread use of personality andn ability test to help in the 1. Administering a preliminary version of the test to tryout placement of recruits in the military. In fact, at some point sample of testtakers from various cultural backgrounds, psychology is criticized as being too test-oriented and clinical and particularly to the users of the final version psychology has become synonymous with mental testing 2. Asking for examiners’ impressions with regard to testtakers’ responses (e.g. understanding of instructions) World War I – need to screen intellectual functioning but also 3. Analyzing each item for potential bias with regards to general adjustment (emotional intelligence), large scale testing race, gender, and culture based on the tryout sample. programs developed for purpose of selection and placement of 4. Examination by a panel of independent reviewers of people entering the armed service. each item for potential bias. 5. Administering of the revised version of the test to a large  Army Alpha- for literates } were administered on a sample that is representative of the final sample. And group basis removing the biased test items. *Developing a standardized test is not easy and it requires a  Army Beta - for illiterates } measure the mental abilities of thousands of American soldiers who had no formal large group of people for the test to be regarded as valid, schooling reliable, and appropriate to the intended users  Personal Data Sheet – the first measure of adjustment Some Issues Regarding Culture and Assessment and emotional stability Communication between assessor and assesse o Given to civilians after the war, Woodworth Psychoneurotic Inventory – first widely used  Verbal communication self-report measure of personality. o language is sometimes an overlooked variable in the assessment process o Advantages of self-report is that people have self-knowledge; - test taker must be able to read and comprehend what is o Disadvantages are poor insight of self, or written - linguistic barriers (use of idioms, vocabulary), the believe something is true about themselves, conceal information contents of tests lean heavily on a particular culture and are typically laden with items and materials from that  Projective Test - Where an individual is assumed to culture project onto some ambiguous stimuli (e.g. inkblot, - use of interpreters drawing, photograph, etc.) his or her own unique needs, - *linguistic barrier can also happen to people who share fears, hopes, and motivation. the same culture because they might come from different o you cant fake your response, because you cant subcultures. e.g. age/generation gap know what is right or wrong - *Cultural competency - we should not just look at people  Standardized Test – objective sample of behavior (e.g. with different people with different cultures, but we verbal ability, mathematical ability, English proficiency, should also be aware of our subcultural membership in integrity, classical musical ability, etc. the different aspects e.g. gender (women has different o Psychological test are tools for self- culture than men in some matters), in profession understanding  Nonverbal communication – e.g. pace of test taking o Gather information from individuals to help them gain meaningful decisions.  Standard of Evaluation 1960-21st Century – improvements of the quality of test due to - judgments related to psychological traits can be culture more advanced statistical tools and the advent of computers relative (e.g. prevailing societal - standards regarding masculinity and femininity; Present – variety of tests throughout our society has been used. individualism versus collectivism) They are broadly classified as formal or informal tests. - applicability of assessment-related findings to specific individuals - DSM 5 Cultural Formulation Interview (CFI) Test and Group Membership - Principles of equal opportunity – job hiring and promotion must not bias against a group on the basis of gender, race, orientation, - Test has been used to discriminate against individuals (Unintentionally or intentionally) – Systemic Differences - One view – the test was designed to measure job ability, and it does what it was designed to do  Cebu Normal University BS Psychology Dr. Eva Marie Gacasan,PhD - Another view - Affirmative action - voluntary and discrimination and some that are judged as non-discriminatory (or mandatory efforts undertaken by the state, private job-related). Thus, discrimination (whether at work, in school, etc.) employers, and schools to combat discrimination and to remains to be a highly contentious subject. It still depends on the promote equal opportunity in education and employment inidivdual jurisdiction in which a legal proceeding occurs. for all (e.g. lowering cut-off score for a certain group; using a quota system so that all identified groups would In 1970s, there is the adoption of minimum competency testing be represented; giving priority to indigenous or native programs; formal testing programs designed to be used in citizens). Question: inequity in equity decisions regarding various aspects of students education e.g. - *impact of affirmative action - there would be inequity grade promotion, awarding of diplomas, remedial instruction in equity. Ex. lowering cut off score could be seen as lowering standards. Truth-in-Testing Legislation – a way for testtakers to be able to - Giving priority to indigenous people can also be seen as know the criteria by which they are judged: discrimination to the majority. This minority who is 1. the test’s purpose and subject matter prioritized may not be qualified for the job. There are a 2. the knowledge and skill the test purpose to measure lot of arguments for affirmative action but a lot of 3. procedures for ensuring accuracy in scoring employers are taking affirmative action to bridge the 4. procedures for notifying test takers of errors in scoring; gap and 5. procedures for ensuring the test takers confidentiality LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATION - Complaints of test publishers – limited tests items, costly  Misuse of Tests - misuse to test have consequences to * If we always disclose how the test would be developed, the individuals or group of people e.g. denial of educational process would be very tedious for the assessor/publisher advancement, dismissal from a job, denial of a parole, denial of child custody  Quota System – a selection procedure whereby a fixed number or percentage of applicants from certain Legal & Ethical Consideration backgrounds were selected.  Laws – or rules for the good of society as a whole  Many employment discrimination cases.  Ethics – body of principles of right, proper or good  Discrimination is defined as a practice of making conduct distinctions in hiring, promotion, or selection decisions that  Code of Professional Ethics – recognized and accepted tend to systematically favor members of a majority by members of a profession; it defines Standard of Care group regardless of actual qualifications for positions; e.g. Code of Ethics and Professional Standards for intentional or unintentional (e.g. police applicants need Psychology Practitioners in the Philippines (2017) to be at least 5’2”; applicants must be graduates of top universities)  Title VII charge workplace discrimination when hiring, The Concerns of the Public promotion, or some related employment decisions are The assessment enterprise is not well understood by the public; systematically made not on the basis of job-related consequences include fear, anger, legislation, litigation, and variables but on non-job related variables e.g. race, administrative regulations. gender, sexual orientation, religion, or national origin.  Reverse discrimination – practice that systematically Significant Legislations and Litigations (judge-made law/ court- tend to favor members of a minority group regardless of mediated resolutions of cases) that now becomes legal basis in actual qualifications for positions. many institutional/ administrative policies and court decisions; just  Disparate treatment – consequence of an employer’s few examples: hiring or promotion practice that was intentionally  Americans with Disabilities Act 0f 1990 – Employment devised to yield some discriminatory result or outcome; testing materials and procedures must be essential to the based on prejudice and maintaning status quo. job and not discriminate against persons with handicaps  Disparate impact – unintentional; not a product of  Individuals with Disabilities Education Act Amendment motivation or planning. 1997 - Children should not be inappropriately placed in  Litigation – judge-made law/ court-mediated rulings; special education programs due to cultural differences. but judges also rely on expert witnesses Accommodate existing test instruments and alternative means of assessment to gauge progress in special Who is qualified as an expert witness? education programs in state –and district-wide  Daubert vs Merrel Dow Pharmaceuticals – Mrs Daubert assessments. claimed of birth defects of children from the use of  Tarasoff v. Regents of the University of California 1974 – Bendectin. Therapists (and presumably psychological assessors ) o Trial judge ruled that research is inadmissible in must reveal privileged information if a third party is court endangered. “Protective privilege ends where the public o Higher court also ruled against them. peril begins. o US Supreme Court – based it on previous ruling  Regents of the University of California v. Bakke 1978 – Frye vs the US where the Court held that when Allan Bakke was denied admission, but had test scores the research study or method enjoys general higher than some minority students who gained acceptance then it is admissible in court (based admission, US SC agreed Bakke be admitted but did not on testimony of experts and reference to preclude the use of diversity considerations in admission publications in peer-reviewed journals. Rule decisions. 702 changed that to allow more  Title VII of Civil Rights Act 1964 - created the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) – published The Concerns of the Profession sets of guidelines on standards in constructing and using  1895 – American Psychological Association (APA) employment tests. formed the first committee on mental measurement to investigate the new practice of testing Discrimination is unfounded if a valid test evidenced a high  1916; 1921 – symposia on the expanded use of tests degree of utility and if not alternative procedures are available.  1954 – APA published the Technical Recommendations *However, the public may label the test as unfair and for Psychological Tests and Diagnostic Tests discriminatory even if it has utility. Some rulings resulted in  Cebu Normal University BS Psychology Dr. Eva Marie Gacasan,PhD  1954 (r.1966, 1974, 1985, 1999, 2014) –APA with o Unprofessional, unregulated “psychological testing” online American Educational Research Association (AREA) and – long term effects of psychological tests in the internet that National Council on Measurement in Education (NCME) do not meet the standards but treated as truths by the published the Standards for Educational and testtakers Psychological Testing (or The Standards) – most detailed document use up until now. - Guidelines with Respect to Certain Populations –e.g. APA  1955 – National Educational Association with National - Guidelines for Psychological Practice with Transgender and Council on Measurements Used in Education published Gender Nonconforming People the Technical Recommendations for Achievement Tests Rights of Test takers Testing Users Qualifications Right of Informed Consent  Level A – Tests or aids that can be adequately - the right to know why they are being evaluated and how administered, scored and intrepreted with the aid of the test data will be used manual and general orientation to the kind of institution - in a language the test taker can understand or organization in which one is working (e.g. achievement 1. the general purpose of testing, or proficiency test) 2. the specific reason it is being undertaken in the present case  Level B- Tests or aids that require some technical 3. the general type of instruments to be knowledge of test construction and use and of supporting administered and time and effort required psychological and educational fields such as statistics, 4. voluntary nature of participation individual differences, psychology of adjustment, 5. withdrawal at any time without explanation personnel psychology, and guidance (e.g. aptitude tests, required personality tests applicable to normal populations). - Use of deception  Level C –Tests or aids that requires substantial 1. only if it is absolutely necessary understanding of testing and supporting psychological 2. if it will not cause emotional distress on participants, fields together with supervised experience in the use of 3. dully debrief participants these device (e.g. projective tests, individual mental 4. minimum risk – risks that they can just encounter in tests). everyday 1988 (r.2004) - Code of Fair Testing Practices in Education – APA, Right to be Informed of Test Findings AERA, NCME and the American Association for Measurement and - the right to be informed of the purpose, nature of the Evaluation in Counseling and Development, and the American test they have taken; meaning of score; limitations and Speech-Language Hearing Association; standard for educational margins of error of the test; the recommendations test developers in 4 areas: developing/selecting tests, interpreting - Not only legally and ethically mandated but may be scores, striving for fairness and informing test takers therapeutic 1987 – Psychologist Licensing Law in the US Right to Privacy and Confidentiality - Privacy right - recognizes the freedom of the individual 2009 – RA10029 - regulates the Psychology profession in the to pick and choose for himself the time, circumstance, and Philippines including licensing of psychologists and extent to which he wishes to share or hold information psychometricians about himself - Privileged information – information protected by law, 2017 – Code of Ethics and Professional Standards for Psychology e.g. right to remain silent; communication between Professionals in the Philippines – code that governs that norms of lawyer-client, doctor-patient, priest-penitent and conduct that must be observed by Psych Professionals husband-wife o “the parties right to privacy serves a greater Testing People with Disabilities public interest” – social good that people feel Difficulties encountered: confident talking freely to the above- 1. transforming the test into a form that can be taken by mentioned people the test taker, - Confidentiality – matters of communication outside the 2. transforming the responses of the test taker so that they courtroom; privilege protects people from disclosure in are scorable, judicial proceedings, but not absolute, and can be 3. meaningfully interpreting the test data ordered by the court to be disclosed particularly if it can  depend on the nature of the disability harm the client or the public. E.g. Tarasoff v Regents of  test converted for use with a population for which the University of California – “Protective privilege ends the test was not originally intended (e.g. artwork) where public peril begins.”  choices must inevitably be made regarding exactly - Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act how the test materials will be modified (HIPAA) of 1996 – limit the way health care providers,  what standards of evaluation will be applied; and health plans, pharmacies and hospitals can use patients’  how results will be interpreted. personal medical ifnormation. Request by terminally ill patients for assistance in quickening the - HIPAA and Jaffee v. Redmond 1996 – psychotherapy process of dying e.g. Oregon’s Death with Dignity Act (ODDA) notes – notes recorded (in any medium) by a health care provider/ professional documenting or analyzing the contents of conversation during a private counseling Computerized test administration scoring, interpretation session or group, joint, or family counseling session and Computer-assisted psychological assessment (CAPA) that are separated from the rest of the individual’s – become the norm medical record.; consent before releasing assessment- Issues: related information. o Access to test administration, scoring and interpretation - test users must take reasonable precautions to safeguard software – unauthorized copying/ duplication of software test records. o Compatibility of pencil-paper and computerized versions Right to Least Stigmatizing Label - be careful when labeling of tests – not been sufficiently researched people – homeless people, retarded girl, diabetic father, gay son, o The value of computerized test interpretations – the value because that is stigmatizing, or can hurt people of these words may be questionable  MS. EVA MARIE P. GACASAN| CEBU NORMAL UNIVERSITY Error is the collective influence of all of the factors on a test score or measurement beyond those specifically measured by the test or measurement (e.g. testtaker, test, test administrator, test venue, etc.) CHAPTER 3 STATISTICS REFRESHER - There is always error in any kind of measurement. It always Outline plays a part of measurement. Scales of Measurement - There are always other factors that contribute to error. It  Nominal can be a testtaker factor, environmental factor, or test  Ordinal administrator factor, etc.  Interval  Ratio TYPES OF SCALES  Measurement Scales in Psychology NOMINAL SCALE Describing Data - Simplest form of measurement - Involves classification or categorization based on one or  Frequency Distributions: Tabular and Graphical more distinguishing characteristics/ supposedly does not tell  Illustrations the magnitude of the variable  Measures of Central Tendency o Examples: o Mean  Gender o Median  ID number o Mode  Grouping in class where students are  Measures of Variability assigned to no.1, 2, 3, 4, o Range - does not tell us the magnitude of the variable but tells us o Interquartile and Semi-Quartile Ranges how things are just as it is. This does not mean that one thing o Average Deviation is important to another. o Standard Deviation  Properties of a Distribution/ Curve ORDINAL SCALE o Skewness - Permits classification and rank ordering (magnitude – one is o Kurtosis greater than the other) The Normal Curve - Does not tell the difference in units of measurement  Area Under the Normal Curve - Has no absolute zero point because it assumes that all Standard Scores people have that characteristic/ ability  z Scores - Examples:  T Scores o Ranking marathon runners to 1st, 2nd, 3rd, etc.  Other Standard Scores o Binet test – data is ordinal in nature – not to o Normalized Standard Scores measure people but to classify them (e.g. low, Correlation and Inference average, high, superior) o Likert – e.g. scale of 1 to 10 where 1 is no pain to  The Concept of Correlation 10 as high pain  Types of Correlation  Graphic Representation of Correlations INTERVAL SCALE  Meta-analysis - Contains equal intervals between numbers; each unit is exactly equal to any other unit in the scale - Does not contain absolute zero point like the ordinal scale SCALES OF MEASUREMENT - Examples: Measurement – the act of assigning numbers or symbols to o IQ score e.g. the distance in IQ score 80 and 100 characteristics things (people, events, etc) according to rules. Rules are is same as 100 and 120 guidelines in describing the magnitude (size, importance, o Temperature extent, degree) of the characteristic e.g. every 30.48 cm =1 foot o Blood pressure therefore 5’1’ = 155 cm - different ways of measuring e.g. height and anxiety RATIO SCALE - natural tendency to measure almost everything - Has true zero point o We classify people technically, not - Examples: philosophically. We have this natural tendency to o Hand grip test in neurological testing (from measure almost everything (physical and absolutely no pressure exerted to varying nonphysical things). pressure exerted) o Time limit (e.g writing from 0 sec to 10 minutes) Scale of Measurement/ Measurement Scale - is a set of numbers (or - Note: *Likert can be regarded as interval/ ratio when the other symbols) whose properties model empirical properties of the principle of equidistance is present or look at the skewness objects to which the numbers are assigned. of the curve - Ways in which variables/ numbers are defined and categorized (how do we measure temperature, sweetness, education, foot size, tv, vacation, house, depression, etc?) - Measurement scale will require different kinds of statistical tests  Continuous scale – data is measured; can take values including fractions and decimals; can take any value including decimal points (within a range) e.g. weight, height, amount of sugar in coffee, amount of rain in a day, time to finish a test o can be divided by 2  Discrete scale – data is counted; can take only integers but not fraction or decimals; can only take certain values e.g. gender, mental health status (previously hospitalized, never hospitalized), number of children in family, number of patients seen by a doctor in one day A discrete variable is a variable whose value is obtained by counting. A continuous variable is a variable whose value is obtained by measuring.  MS. EVA MARIE P. GACASAN| CEBU NORMAL UNIVERSITY Be cautious in using ordinal scale as interval scale because of the possibility of gross inequality of intervals. Ordinal Scale – e.g. How many times do you clean your phone? 0-1-2-3 to represent hourly, daily, weekly, monthly o difference in interval is not the same Interval/ ratio 0-1-2-3 – e.g. How much do your earn in a month in your first job? ▪ 1-2-3-4 to represent 10000 – 19999 ; 20000-29000; 30000-39000, 40000-49000 o intervals in the categories are the same Measurement Scales in Psychology - Often use ordinal level in measuring intelligence, aptitude, and personality to indicate the rank- order positions of individuals (e.g. ID – mild, moderate, severe, profound) - We just rank-order people in most psychological test rather than provide them with actual values (e.g. you are with 99.9% intelligence is wrong) Why did we elaborate on this? - the kind of scale that we have would also determine the appropriateness of the statistical tool that we will use. - Nominal/Ordinal scale = categorical scale/data, we use non-parametric statistical test - Interval/Ratio scale = we use parametric statistical tools that are highly regarded because of the more precise value that they yield in the statistical analysis MEASURES OF CENTRAL VARIABILITY Variability – is an indication of how scores in a distribution are DESCRIBING DATA scattered or dispersed. FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS – scores are distributed by the Range - equal to the difference between the highest and the frequency by which they occur. lowest scores.  Distribution – is a set of test scores arrayed for recording Example: 60 Highest Score; 40 Lowest Score (60 – 40 = 20) or study Interquartile and semi-quartile ranges  Raw scores – simple tally such as number of correct - A distribution of test scores (or any other data, for that responses, unmodified matter) can be divided into four parts such that 25% of the  Group Frequency distributions test scores occur in each quarter For convenience in reading - Quarter – interval; Quartile – point Sometimes if the more logical thing to do - Q2 – median score/ midpoint; Q1 & Q3 are the quarter- Trade off – some details are lost points  Graphical illustrations Interquartile range – Difference between Q3 and Q1 o Histogram Semi-interquartile range - equal to the interquartile range o Bar graph divided by 2 o Frequency polygon In perfect symmetrical distribution, Q1 and Q3 will be of exact distance from Q2 or the median. Quartile - points that separate one quarter from other quarter Quarter - represents the 4 areas MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY  Mean – most stable measure o Affected by extreme values o May not exist as a data point in the set Average Deviation  Median – value that divides the ranked data points into x =score’s deviation from the mean; obtained by subtracting the halves: 50% larger than it, 50% smaller mean from the score ( X – mean = x )  Mode – most frequent data point - Bars on each side of x indicate that it is the absolute value o Exists as a data point of the deviation score (ignoring the positive or negative sign o Unaffected by extreme values and treating all deviation scores as positive). o Useful for qualitative data - All the deviation scores are then o May have more than 1 value summed and divided by the total number of scores ( n ) to arrive at the average deviation. Standard Deviation (SD or σ) - measure of variability equal to the square root of the average squared deviations about the mean. More succinctly, it is equal to the square root of the variance. Variance (σ2)- equal to the arithmetic mean of the squares of the differences between the scores in a distribution and their mean.  MS. EVA MARIE P. GACASAN| CEBU NORMAL UNIVERSITY THE NORMAL CURVE The Area Under the Normal Curve - It is a bell-shaped, smooth, mathematically defined curve that is highest at its center. - From the center it tapers on both sides approaching the X - axis asymptotically (meaning that it approaches, but never touches, the axis). - It is perfectly symmetrical, with no skewness. Because it is symmetrical, the mean, the median, and the mode all have the same exact value. 50% of the scores occur above the mean and 50% of the scores occur below the mean. Approximately 34% of all scores occur between the mean and 1 standard deviation above the mean. Approximately 34% of all scores occur between the mean and 1 standard deviation below the mean. Approximately 68% of all scores occur between the mean and & 1 standard deviation. Approximately 95% of all scores occur between the mean and & 2 standard deviations. SD – tells us how far a score is from the mean. E.g. 1 SD in IQ which is 15 where mean is 100, so a 115 IQ score means that you are 1 SD above the average person in terms of intelligence. Note: The symbols Σ and σ given in this table are the capital and lowercase of the same Greek letter, pronounced “sigma.” In many statistical writings, SD (or simply S) refers to the standard deviation of the sample on which the data were actually obtained, while σ refers to the estimated value of the standard deviation in the population from which the sample was drawn. (Anastasi & Urbina, 2001) PROPERTIES OF THE DISTRIBUTION/CURVE Skewness - nature and extent to which symmetry is absent; is an indication of how the measurements in a distribution are distributed. Standard Scores - Positive skewed - when relatively few of the scores fall at - It is a raw score that has been converted from one scale to the high end of the distribution. Positively skewed another scale, where the latter scale has some arbitrarily examination results may indicate that the test was too set mean and standard deviation. difficult. More items that were easier would have been - Raw scores may be converted to standard scores because desirable in order to better discriminate at the lower end of standard scores are more easily interpretable than raw the distribution of test scores. scores. With a standard score, the position of a testtaker’s - Negatively skewed - relatively few of the scores fall at the performance relative to other testtakers is readily low end of the distribution. Negatively skewed examination apparent. results may indicate that the test was too easy. In this case, - Different systems for standard scores exist, each unique in more items of a higher level of difficulty would make it terms of its respective mean and standard deviations: z possible to better discriminate between scores at the upper scores, T scores, stanines, and some other standard scores. end of the distribution. Kurtosis refer to the steepness of a distribution in its center Platykurtic – relatively flat Leptokurtic – relatively peaked Mesokurtic - somewhere in the middle  z score - results from the conversion of a raw score into a number indicating how many standard deviation units the raw score is below or above the mean of the distribution; zero plus or minus one scale  T Score - fifty plus or minus ten scale  MS. EVA MARIE P. GACASAN| CEBU NORMAL UNIVERSITY  Stanine - Divided into nine units scale; 5th stanine indicates Coefficient of determination average performance - r2, square of Pearson r which tells you how much of the  Other scores (SAT & GRE = Achievement test scores) - Raw variance of Y is in common with the variance of X scores on those tests are converted to standard scores such - Calculate by squaring the correlation coefficient and that the resulting distribution has a mean of 500 and a multiply by 100 standard deviation of 100 - Example if r =.9 then multiply by itself.81, then multiply by 100, r2 = 81% A nonlinear transformation may be required when the data under consideration are not normally distributed yet comparisons with The coefficient of normal distributions need to be made. In a nonlinear transformation, correlation between the resulting standard score does not necessarily have a direct caffeine and reaction is.6. numerical relationship to the original, raw score. As the result of a The coefficient of nonlinear transformation, the original distribution is said to have been determination therefore normalized. between the variables is.36, this means the amount Normalizing a distribution involves “stretching” the skewed curve into of caffeine one has the shape of a normal curve and creating a corresponding scale of consumed would standard scores, a scale that is technically referred to as a normalized be associated with 36 standard score scale. percent of the variance in one’s reaction time. That leaves 64 percent - Lahi ra ang pag transform sa score if it originally comes of the variance in reaction time associated with factors other than from a normal distribution to a standard score. The results variation in caffeine intake. of the standard score will be similar to the standard distribution. Types of Correlation 1. Spearman rho - Shows sign and magnitude of correlation CORRELATION AND INFERENCE between two ordinal variables Coefficient of correlation – is a number that provides an index of the 2. Pearson r - Shows sign and magnitude of correlation strength of the relationship between two things (X and Y) between two interval variables 3. Multiple regression - Uses a number of independent What type of relationship exists in the following? variables to predict a single dependent variable 1. The correlation between time spent watching television and 4. Phi coefficient - Shows sign and magnitude of correlation time spent reading is −.44. between two nominal variables 5. Eta correlation - Used when the relationship between two 1. The correlation between socioeconomic status and number variables is curvilinear (IV – categorical; DV – of museums visited is.21. scale/interval) 2. The correlation between days absent from school and There are still other complex types of correlation but we will not kindergarten reading scores is −.58. include them for now. Answers Graphic Representations of Correlation 1. The more time spent watching TV, the less time spent - Scatterplot - displays the strength, direction, and form of the reading; there is a negative relationship. relationship between two quantitative variables. 2. The higher the socioeconomic status, the more museums - Curvilinearity – eyeball gauge of how curved a graph is; If visited; there is a positive relationship. the graph does not appear to take the form of a straight 3. The more days absent, the lower the reading scores; there is line, the relationship is likely not linear a negative relationship. - Outlier – an extremely atypical point located ay a relatively long distance from the rest of the points. Correlation coefficient - index (r) that show both the direction and the strength of relationships among variables. In interpreting a coefficient of correlation , one looks at both its sign (+, -) and its size. The size of the correlation coefficient indicates the strength of the relationship between the variables. - The coefficient can range in value from + 1.00 (indicating a perfect positive relationship) through 0 (indicating no relationship) to − 1.00 (indicating a perfect negative relationship). The strength of relationship can be categorized. o 0-.4 = weak relationship o 0.5-0.7 = moderate Meta-analysis o 0.5< = strong relationship  Family of techniques used to statistically combine - Pearson r – Pearson correlation coefficient/ Pearson information across studies to produce single estimates of the product-moment data under study. The estimates derived, referred to as o Pearson r can be used for interval/ratio scale. effect size, may take different forms. In most meta-analytic Not appropriate for categorical data studies, effect size is typically expressed as a correlation (nominal/ordinal) coefficient. - correlation – statistical tool when the relationship between  Effect size refers to an estimate of the strength of the the variables is linear and when the two variables being relationship (or the size of the differences) between groups. correlated are continuous A key advantage of meta-analysis over simply reporting a range of findings is that, in meta-analysis, more weight can be given to studies that have larger numbers of subjects. This weighting process results in more accurate estimates. Some advantages to meta-analyses are: 1. meta-analyses can be replicated. 2. the conclusions of meta-analyses tend to be more reliable and precise than the conclusions from single studies. 3. there is more focus on effect size rather than statistical significance alone 4. Meta-analysis promotes evidence-based practice, which may be defined as professional practice that is based on clinical and research findings.  Cebu Normal University |BS Psychology| Ms. Eva Marie Gacasan correlations coefficient formula through your verbal Psychological Assessment discussion, or your solutions to a given test. o Relatively enduring means the trait does not WEEK 4 OF TESTS AND TESTING manifest in the behavior 100%, but that it can be situation dependent (remember person-situation Module Overview interaction by Rotter and Mischel?) Whether the test is standardized or teacher-made, it should apply the o Human also vary in their level of a trait (e.g. shy, practice of a good measuring instrument. Assessment professionals must very shy, painfully shy) have confidence in the tests and other tools of assessment they employ. This unit takes into account the different assumptions of psychological Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States Can Be Quantified testing and assessment. Since tests represent an attempt to provide and Measured objective data that can be used with subjective impressions to make - The specific traits and states to be measured and quantified better, decisive decisions, it is important to know the characteristics of a need to be carefully defined good tests. This unit also deals with discussion on the norms. - Have many different ways of looking at and defining the same phenomenon (e.g. emotional intelligence, cognitive Lecture Outline intelligence, adaptability, resilience – share same points in Some Assumptions about Psychological Testing and Assessment the definition which is adaptation to situation) - Assumption 1: Psychological Traits and States Exist - E.g. Understanding how aggressive was defined by the test - Assumption 2: Psychological Traits and States Can Be developed (e.g. aggressive salesperson, aggressive killer, Quantified and Measured aggressive waiter) - Assumption 3: Test Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test Once having defined the trait/ state/ construct, the test developer Related Behavior considers the types of content that would measure it. (think of the Neo- - Assumption 4: Tests and Other Measurement Techniques Have Pi that you have taken, they have items for O-C-E-A-N) Strengths and Weaknesses - Weighing the comparative value of a test’s items comes - Assumption 5: Various Sources of Error are Part of the about as the result of a complex interplay among many Assessment Process factors, including technical considerations, the way a - Assessment 6: Testing and Assessment Can Be Conducted in a construction has been defined for the purpose of the test, and Fair and Unbiased Manner the value society attaches to the behaviors evaluated - Assumption 7: Testing and Assessment Benefit Society - Measuring a trait requires appropriate test items but also What’s a Good Test? appropriate ways to score the test and interpret the results - Reliability - Test score is presumed to represent the strength of the - Validity targeted ability or trait or state and is frequently based on - Other Considerations cumulative scoring. Norms - Sampling to Develop Norm Assumption 3: Test-Related Behavior Predicts Non-Test-Related - Types of Norms Behavior - Fixed Reference Group Scoring Systems - Provide some indication of other aspects of the examinee’s - Norm-Referenced Versus Criterion-Referenced Evaluation behavior e.g. patterns of your responses (e.g. MMPI has - Culture and Inference advanced level of analysis of test taking pattern such as inconsistencies, faking good/bad/ lying) Introduction - Such test yield only a sample of the behavior that can be Confidence in the tests and other tools of assessment they employ expected to be emitted under nontest conditions. The because the use of tests significantly impact many people’s lives e.g. obtained sample of the behavior is typically used to make diagnosing disorders, identifying the most accurate intervention, predictions about future behavior, such as work performance selecting the best candidate for the job, making legal decisions, etc. of a job applicant , or to postdic it – to understand the Psychology professionals need to know, what does and does behavior that has taken place such as in forensic (e.g. criminal not constitute a good test. mind and behavior). SOME ASSUMPTIONS ABOUT PSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING AND Assumption 4: Test and Other Measurement Techniques Have ASSESSMENT Strengths and Weaknesses - Competent test users understand how a test was developed