PSYC 111 Study Guide #2 PDF

· studying psychology solid understanding of the brain's would be...

· studying psychology solid understanding of the brain's would be challenge ideas , moods feelings urges biological phenomena > etc. > biology - - a our , , are LOCALANOFUCT moved away from phrenology to a more modern understanding of localization - although Franz Joseph Gall and his notion of phrenology were incorrect the concept behind phrchology is important BIOBRAwaparts of thebranareresponsibleforcertain actionsisacogent endenein the brain and I psychological sie es humans are biopsychosocial systems NEURAL COMMUNICATION communication between brain and body happens via neurons different types of neurons in our bodies , but all are variations on the same general theme - each type consists of dentrites and axons branch-like dentrites receive electrical impulses from other neurons and conduct them toward the cell body or " Soma" " from information dendrites listen" and axons speak there through itsterminal(s) to other n e u ron s > neuron's axon the a passes , , atons can be insulated , encased in a myelin sheath (fatt ; space inbetween becomes very thin or non-existent - > called nodes of Ranvier as myelin is layed onto different neurons until 25yrs neural efficiency and self-control > degeneration of myelin part of MS grows - , billions of supporting the process are glial cells > provide nutrients and oxygen to neurons and myelin - > stabilize the neurons and destroy dead and they phagocytes neurons pathogens because are - , the ratio (dolphins Snails in complex brains of glial cells to neurons is high in comparison to less complex brains vs. depending on the location different glial cell types make myelin although several molecular and morphological differences exist between neurons in the DNS and CNS , the basic myelin sheath arrangement (and electrophysiological characteristics) are essentially the same THE NEURAL IMPULSE: IN GENERAL - neurons transmit messages when they are stimulated by signals from our senses or by chemical signals from neighboring neurons to stimulation fires electrical action potential brief charge that travels along > in neuron impulse called an axon - - an response , a , a neural impulse e can travel at speeds 2-200 mph ranging I an impulse is possible because of a chemistry to electricity process whereby ions are exchanged across a membrane for a neuron to fire , the first section of an axon the proteinbased ion channels nestled within the cell membrane must open to let pos. charged sodium ions flood into the normally neg. charged neuronal interior pos. Charged Nations flow into neuron ; each ion allows only specific ions to cross cell membrane to enterl leave neuron charge difference > > - resulting loss of insideloutside is called depolarization from + 40MV causes the next ion channel in arons membrane to open and so - , can vary to -FOR on.. A FEW DETAILS refractory period : neuron takes time to return to its resting state of polarity... potassium channels in cell membrane open so pos. charged Ktions can flood into cell > - cell can't fire during this period ; it is hyperpolarized resting state is achieved cell fire once again > can - HOW NEURONS COMMUNICATE > the neural impulse is interrupted by neurotransmitters a small space between terminal and another neuron I called synapse or synaptic cleft die Synapse communication happens through - they the synapse and bind to receptors key-lock-system > receiving - > cross on neuron - ~ when a neurotransmitter fits into a receptor , a channel in cell membrane opens for ions to flow in , starting the process of exciting/inhibiting the neuron's readiness to fire > neurotransmitters in synapse either drift away broken down by enzymes absorbed into neuron Creuptakel - excess are or are , THE INFLUENCE OF NEUROTRANSMITTERS neurotransmitters can either excite or inhibit a post-synaptic neuron excitatory - depolarize a post-synaptic neuron , making it less negative on the inside and move it towards its threshold for an action potential inhibitory - hyperpolarize a post-synaptic neuron , making it more negative on the inside and less likely for action potential to be reached they affect behavior and neurotransmission affected by can be drugs Which affect moods , memories information...? Can other than ? researchers explore : ones our , processing capabilities we boos-ciminish 1 these effects through things drugs THE NERVOUS SYSTEM reason for communication between our environment and our senses Centraveoembrananoddsmakigsemtransmitg cudeasions to body sie ps Information travels in the NS through different types of Neurons sensory - carry messages from tissue skin and sensory , organs to brain and spinal cord for processing motor-earry instructions from CNS to body muscles and glands between this sensory input and motor output information , is processed via interneurons THE PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Somatic Nervous System enables voluntary control sheleful muscles of our Autonomie Nervous System controls glands and internal muscles self-regulating > is - organ our I heart beat BP ↓... sympathetic system to expend reacts alarmed challenged digestion > and allows when we - or energy nervous arouses us > are - us , nervous marks situation is whenstres -parasympathetic system over , produces a restorationlee THE ENDOCRINE SYSTEM adrenal lands - pineal gland pituary gland pancreas ovaries testes para-lthyriod gland hypothalamus 1 glands BRAIN STRUCTURES : CEREBRAL HEMISPHERES umdrobamenernetanghemiphemothebrain neural that enables communication between both braines ist bridge - I abilities right & he THE HINDBRAIN pons : part of brain stem ; deals with basic functions (swallowing , eye movement , taste , posture facial expressions , cerebellum : concerned with voluntary motor movements of muscles , balance coordination and speech , medulla : plays a role in vital autonomic functions like heart rate and respiration THE FOREBRAIN functions the cerebral cortex thalamus relays sensory signals onward to higher brain operating in : pituitary gland motivation and emotion with respect to thirst , sleep etc. hypothalamus : links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the ; also plays a role in hunger , GREY AND WHITE MATTER matter cells dendrites etc. meat of CNS cell bodies glial - grey axons , : , , white matter : areas of the brain only made out of myelinated axons THE LIMBIC SYSTEM I hippocampus : involved in consolidating memories from short-to long-term ; especially spatial memories that enable navigation and cognitive maps affected by Alzheimer's amygdalae organize emotional responses ind fear anxiety aggression etc. · : , ,. THE LOBE frontal involved primarily: in executive function and self-awareness partial : involved in visual-spatial function temporal involved mainly : with the auditory and olfactory senses occipital receives and : processes visual information motor cortex : controls voluntary muscular movements somatosensory cortex : receives sensory input for neat , touch and bodily movements SPEECH Wernicke's Area processes helps with comprehension : incoming speech and Broca's Area : stimulates the motor cortex to activate the muscles that produce speech TOOLS OF DISCOVERY 100yrs ago, , scientists had no tools strong/gentle enough to explore the living brain early case studies helped localize some brain function > - noticing that damage to one side of the brain often caused numbness or paralysis to the opposite side - contralateral function to the back of would disrupt damage the brain the vision > - to the left-front portion would produce speech dificulties (Broca's Areal > - damage (i destroy) tiny surrounding Today , we can selectively lesion. e. clusters of neurons , leaving tissue unhammed > neurologist also stimulate various parts of the brain either electrically can biochemically or magnetically - , stimulation an individual may behave in a particular way during > - , brain is always the emiting electrical metabolic magnetic signals , or synaptic activity generates a subtle electrical impulse (post-synaptic potential > - > - when enough neurons fire at the same time , the created electrical field can pass through the brain tissue and skull - > can be measured on the head's surface (EEG) amplifies electrical Electroencephalogram these > waves - with direct to the brain present stimulus repeatedly and watch levels brain particular to deduce whether certain part of brain activated of activity in the > access is - no , we a average areas a techniques inside the brain > - let newer neuroimaging us see PET shows brain activity by measuring area's consumption of glucose lenergy consumption during firing ( > scan - : an > temporarily radioactive glucose e PETscan can track when use energy s neurons gamma ray - - shows hotspots" of most active brain areas during specific tasks > - , MRI placed in a strong magnetic field a radio pulse momentarily atoms body's water molecules In an persons head is , a , wave disorients the protons inside the hydrogen in our -electronical are emitted signals when they return to normal , providing a picture of the soft tissue an fMRI shows how brain structures are functioning i affords an assessment of oxygenated blood flow in cortial areas over time - by comparing successive fMRI scans , we can watch as specific brain areas activate because of an increase in O2-laiden blood Chapter 5 : Variations in Consciousness ALTERED STATES OF CONSCIOUSNESS occuring daydreaming drowsiness dreaming spontaneously : , , physiologically induced hallucination orgasm food or oxygen starvation , , psychologically induced sensory deprivation hypnosis meditation : , , DEFINING CONSCIOUSNESS recalhatrahenbehavionmmmesuconsciousnessothermentprocessinfavourresearchingonlobservablebehavioersses and consciousness CONTENERSENpc brain statTo Onenscious experience replipperinhaasmummepatientuts O - measured brain random musde twitches ·Maislimits of outcome ander sie or activity as stimulusactivatesenoughneuralnetworkhensomethreshold ispassedandconsciousawarenessofthe stimulusaussie DUAL PROCESSING two-track mind /dual-processing > - we are conscious but at the same time unconscious information processing - occurs in our brain during experiences of every day life System 1 more automatic and " implicit" because quick associative : , judgements are made for your survival (dual-processing > - fast automatic associative and cannot be switched off , , System 2 you are actively : thinking about what is happening/what you are seeing > slower , deliberate and - effortful i quite sensitive to subtle environmental cues and assumptions based on prior experiences I can be biased/incorrect SELECTIVE ATTENTION within System 2 , we can selectively altend to solving problems that require focused attention things if you choose to attend to > - you can > - our ability to selectively altend to one (or morel thing(s) at once is highly useful - we can be so focused on a task that we fail to see blatant elements of our environment SLEEP AND DREAMS even when sleeping , we are perciving SLEEP STAGES when we sleep , consciousness is altered , the brain has its own biological rhythm every 90mins or so we cycle 4 through stages > - nREM-1 : the transition to sleep marked by slower breathing and regular brain waves falling sensations sudden movements etc. > - ; , nREM-2 : periodic sleep splindles ; you are asleep but can be woken up easily nREM-3 : deep sleep fast similar to nREM-1 REM : brain waves become I dreams become more vividly and possibly strange WHY DO WE SLEEP ? · protects us affords creative thinking heals us restore immune system and repair brain tissue helps consolidate memories - pituitary gland for development supports growth releases growth hormones necessary muscle - supports toxin removal in the brain > - increased cerebrospinal fluid movement > - helps remove neurotoxins , like acc. beta-amyloid (alzheimer MAJOR SLEEP DISORDERS Insomnia-persistent problems with falling Istaying asleep - 4 risk resulting tiredness of depression > - in , very normal to struggle with it , especially when we age , focusing on it makes it more elusive Narcolepsy characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks - sufferer might laps directly into REM sleep often at inopportune times > - , e specific tell the immune system to attack neurons that produce neurotransmitters and peptides that enhance alertness le orexinl genes g.. sleeping pills do the > - same promising that a drug could minic orexin to and counter narcolepsy > - seems keep us awake I drugs can be developed to affect neurotransmitters or receptor sites that are needed to cause action in post-synaptic a neuron sleep aprea - characterized by temporary of breathing cessations during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings > - sufferers might experience loud snoring , tiredness and irritability - continuous positive airway machine (CPAPI can help night terrors-high arousal and an appearance of being terrified > - occur during nRET-3 and are seldor recalled by sufferer - kids often have them prob due to ,. lengthly nRE-3 phases TED TALK RUSSEL FOSTER " 1 WHY DO WE SLEEP ? Sleep Basics essential for health and well-being sleep lives average on of our we 36 % Functions of Sleep Restoration Energy : , Conservation Brain Function, consequences of Sleep Deprivation reduced concentration , memory and abilities problem-solving I risk and type-2 diabetes of weight gain supressed immune system making , us more suscepticle to infections cardiovase disease and mental illness higher risk of cancer ,. Improving sleep quality and alcohol maintaining regular sleep patter avoid caffeine before bedtime · dark cool and , quiet environment reduce light exposure , esp blue. light Sleep myths debunked that adults need only 5hrs of sleep most need 7-8hrs · , Renager's lale sleep patterns are due to laziness -> result of biological changes early risers are morally superior Importance of Sleep Research is crucial for sleep disorders understanding and addressing proper diagnosis and treatment of sleep problems can significantly improve quality of life CONSCIOUSNESS AND DRUGS drugs- calleine nicotine botox dief pills viagra advil of non-prescription common use , etc. , , , , , sometimes people develop self-harming substance use disorder > a - > often caused by psychoactive drugs-chemicals that change perceptions of the world our our moods etc - , TYPES OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS type either inhibits stimulates mimics the activity of naturally occuring neurotransmitte s Danach drug , or > tend to slow neural activity creale feelings of euphoria and well-being - ; some can low closes to enliven disinhibitor even though seem a person , it does so because in is acting as a that control and inhibition slow down judgement increase exuberant tendencies > areas > can - - alcohol slows SNS activity > - slows reaction time slurs speech skilled , , performance deteriorates sedative combined with sleep deprivation have a effect when - can , disrupt e can memory heavy drinking have long-term effect the brain via cell death - can a on nerve time e overuse can impair cognition and problem-solving over as it blocks the growth of new neural networks barbituates · Nembutal Seconal and Amytal sometimes described to induce sleep and /or seiaures combined with alcohol drugs like reduce anxiety be lethal when > are can - , , opiates (opium heroin , etc. ) > depress neural functioning - , breathing slows , pupils contract lethargy sets in as bliss to replace pain or anxiety > Short-term pleasure at price of strong cravings for another round - , seems as tolerance develops , higher closes are needed to get the same effect over time withdrawal higher closes symptoms > - = more severe repeated exposure to artificial opiates can sometimes lead our brains to stop producing its own form-endorphines heroin can be substituted with methadone > - curbs withdrawal symptoms some overdose developed inability eventually because anxiety, agitation, of a to naturally cope with pain , etc. - opiates are often prescribed by doctors as pain hillers or cough suppressants (despite risk of addiction narcotics like morphine or codeine are often prescribed for mild to moderate pain > - management > - important to have easy/frequent access to doctor when taking prescription medicine STIMULANTS excile neural activity and speed up bodily functions · pupils dialate ↑ heart and breathing rates I blood sugar > - , , - ↑ energy , alertness , performance and self-confidence even though people use them to feel good and enhance their lives , they should be treated carefully When people don't get their usual dose they tend to experience depressive symptoms , headaches and irritability > - , > also impair sleep causing sleep deprivation etc. - can , · nicotine addictive highly - reaches the brain 2x faster than intravenous heroine smokers life expectancy