[PRPM110] MIDTERM EXAM PREPARATION (1).pdf

BOTANY LECTURE MIDTERM EXAM PREPARATION Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Lecture) Louie Mariano | Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy - BSP1D | SEM 1 2023 MODULE 1: Discovered cells in Introduction to Botany...

BOTANY LECTURE MIDTERM EXAM PREPARATION Pharmaceutical Botany with Taxonomy (Lecture) Louie Mariano | Bachelor of Science in Pharmacy - BSP1D | SEM 1 2023 MODULE 1: Discovered cells in Introduction to Botany living plant tissue used microscope observation to discover BOTANY plant tissues. branch of science that deals with the study Discovered the malpighian of plants and processes occurring in a Marcello Malpighi tubule system — excretion plant life (1628 –1694) system of insects TWO BRANCHES ○ Botany and Zoology Natural Science Father of Plant Anatomy vast subject that includes all plant forms Nehemiah Grew and the processes related to them. (1628-1711) Provided the first high definition picture of plant BRANCHES OF BOTANY BY EARLY cells BOTANISTS Plant Physiology Plant Anatomy Study of plant form and function. concerned chiefly with the internal structure of plants (cells, tissues, etc.) Flemish physician and chemist Plant Morphology First to demonstrate that concerned chiefly with the external plants don’t have same Jan Baptist van structure of plants (roots, stems, etc.) nutritional needs as Helmont animals (1577- 1644) Father of Botany Discovered First to study plant photosynthetic activity — THEOPHRASTUS morphology, classification plants absorbing water. (PatBoVoHo) and natural history of plants Discovered accidentally Phillipus Aurelius that gasses play a role in Theophrastus De HISTORIA Plantarum photosynthesis (1771). Bombastus Von - anatomy and Hohenheim classifications to stature He put a candle, mint plant Joseph Priestley and a rat inside a bell jar (1733- 1804) De CAUSIS Plantarum then, the rat survived - economical use because of the oxygen Known for identifying the A gas (oxygen) must be cellular structure of plants released by the plant that supports combustion. Published the first important work on Plant Systematics Robert Hooke microscopy in 1665 called: (1635-1703) "Micrographia: or The science of developing methods for grouping some Physiological organisms. Descriptions of Minute Bodies" Plant Taxonomy 1  The study that identifies, describes, names and Dioscorides scholar classifies plants. (40—90 AD) Published 5 volumes of a Domain book entitled Dear Kingdom “De Materia Medica” in 78 King Phylum/Division AD which described 600 Phillip Class medicinal plants with their Come Over Order collection, storage and uses From Family Great TYPES OF MEDICINAL Genus Spain PLANTS FROM HIS Species MATERIA MEDICA Swedish botanist who is 1. Aromantic first person to formulate 2. Culinary and adhere to a uniform 3. Medicinal system for defining and naming the world's plants Father of Chinese Medicine and animals. Shennong's Classic of made the present system Materia Medica or the Shen- of naming and classifying nung pen-tsao ching, Shen nong ben cao plants and animals using provide the earliest treatise jing generic name (genus) and of chinese traditional (2700 BC) Carolus Linnaeus specific name (species). medicine. (1707-1778) Published The System of Introduced the technique of Nature (Systema Naturae) acupuncture. in 1735 The Yellow Emperor - 1753 - The Genera of founder of Chinese plants and Species civilization. Plantarum, marked the use of the nomenclature for all His Classic of Internal flowering plants and ferns. Medicine is important in 1758 - nomenclature to Huang Di understanding the basic animals (2697–2597 BCE) ideas of traditional Chinese herbal science, acupuncture, moxibustion Plant Ecology Yin and Yang, the Five Phases of Study of the interaction of plants with one another Evolutive Change, and and with their environment. Meridian theory. Ernst Haeckel In 1866, a German scientist German toxicologist first to (1834-1919) coined the word ‘“ecology”. study psychoactive plants systematically. Ethnobotany “Phantastica” - book in 1924 The study of the traditional knowledge and Louis Lewin customs of a people concerning plants and their Create a system of (1850 - 1929) medicinal, religious and other uses. classification of psychoactive John William US botanist, in 1895 he drugs and plants based on Harshberger coined the term their action. (1869-1929) "ethnobotany". Categories according to Pedanius 1st Century BCE, greek 2  Lewin: Living systems store, retrieve, 1. Inebrantia - inebriants like transmit, and respond to information BIG IDEA alcohol essential to life processes. 3 2. Exitantia - stimulants like khat or amphetamine EX: Cell 3. Euphorica - euphorants and narcotics such as Biological systems interact, and these heroins systems and their interactions 4. Hypnotica - Tranquilizers possess complex properties. BIG IDEA such as Kava 4 5. Phantastica - EX: Systems in the Human Body (Hallucinogens or (Skeletal System, Nervous System, Entheogens such as Peyote etc.) or Ayahausca) Charles Darwin - british naturalist PLANT GEOGRAPHY proposed the theory of biological evolution by natural selection. Study of the geographic distribution oF plant defined evolution as “descent with species and their influence on the earth’s surface. modification”. Alexander Von which means: species change over time, the "father of give rise to new species, and share Humboldt phytogeography". common ancestors. (1769–1859) GENETICS - SINGLE Darwin’s concept of natural selection was based on several key observations: The study of heredity Traits are often heritable. GENOMICS - MATERIALS More offspring are produced than can survive. Study of genes and their functions, and related Offspring vary in their heritable traits. techniques. Founder of Genetics Based on these simple observations, Darwin Gregor Johann concluded the following: Showed that the inheritance Mendel of these traits follows laws In a population, some individuals will have later named after him inherited traits that help them survive and reproduce Because the helpful traits are heritable, and BOTANY IN THE THEORIES OF THE ORIGIN OF because organisms with these traits leave LIFE, EVOLUTION AND ADAPTATION more offspring, the traits will tend to Botany derives components from each of the four become more common in the next big ideas in biology: generation. over generations, the population will The process of evolution drives the become adapted to its environment BIG IDEA diversity and unity of life 1 EX: Humans, animals ADAPTATION the adjustment or changes in behavior, Biological systems utilize free energy physiology, and structure of an organism and molecular building blocks to grow, to become more suited to an environment BIG IDEA to reproduce, & to maintain dynamic Plants have adaptations to help them 2 homeostasis. survive (live and grow) in different areas. EX: photosynthesis 3  BIOMES The taiga is dominated by conifers and most of which are evergreen Terrestrial biotic communities considered on The taiga has cold winters and warm a global scale or on a continental scale summers Important biomes occupy the North American continent TAIGA ADAPTATION Each has a characteristic mix of plants and animals adapted to that region’s Many trees are evergreen environment. Many trees have needle-like leaves which CLIMATE - major influence determining the shape loses less water and sheds snow composition of a biome. more easily than broad leaves Waxy coating on needles to prevent MAJOR BIOMES IN THE WORLD evaporation Needles are dark in color allowing more 1. Tundra solar heat to be absorbed 2. Taiga Many trees have branches that droop 3. Temperate Deciduous Forest downward to help shed excess snow to 4. Mountain and Coastal Forest keep the branches from breaking 5. Temperate Grasslands “Prairie” 6. Temperate Rain forest TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST 7. Desert 8. Tropical Rain Forests Temperature varies from hot in the summer 9. Savannah to below freezing in the winter. 10. Chappara; Rain is plentiful Made up of layers of plants TUNDRA The tallest trees make up the forest canopy. ○Beneath the canopy, the understory Cold year-round–it has short cool summers ○ Below the understory is a shrub layer. and long, severe winters. ○ Carpeting the forest floor is the herb layer Has a permanently frozen sublayer of soil made up of wildflowers, mosses, and ferns. called permafrost. Fallen leaves, twigs, and dried plants cover Drainage is poor due to the permafrost and the ground, decompose, and help add because of the cold, evaporation is slow. nutrients to the topsoil The tundra receives little precipitation and is usually in the form of snow or ice TEMPERATE DECIDUOUS FOREST There is a little diversity of species. Plant ADAPTATIONS life is dominated by mosses, grasses, and sedge Wildflowers grow on forest floor early in the spring TUNDRA ADAPTATIONS before trees leaf-out and shade the forest floor Cold year-round–it has short cool summers Many trees are deciduous and long, severe winters. Most deciduous trees have thin, broad, Has a permanently frozen sublayer of soil lightweight leaves called permafrost. When the weather gets cooler, the broad Drainage is poor due to the permafrost and leaves cause too much water loss and can because of the cold, evaporation is slow. be weighed down by too much snow The tundra receives little precipitation and is Trees have thick bark to protect against usually in the form of snow or ice cold winters There is a little diversity of species. Plant life is dominated by mosses, grasses, and MOUNTAIN AND COASTAL FOREST sedge occupy much of the Pacific Northwest and TAIGA extend south along Rocky Mountains and California Mountain ranges Also known as boreal forests 4  coniferous tree species tend to be inzones Some plants have a short life cycle, determined by altitude germinating in response to rain,growing, flowering, and dying within one year. TEMPERATE GRASSLAND “PRAIRIE” Leaves with hair or spine ADAPTATIONS Waxy coating on stems and leaves. Flowers that open at night lure pollinators Called prairie, it features hot summers and who are more likely to be active during the cold winters. cooler night. Rainfall is uncertain and drought is Slower growing requires less energy. common. The soil is extremely rich in organic material TROPICAL RAIN FORESTS due to the fact that the above-ground portions of grasses die off annually, Is hot and it rains a lot enriching the soil. Abundance of water problems: The area is well-suited to agriculture, and Harm to plants due to growth of bacteria few original prairies survive today. and fungi. Risk of flooding. Soil erosion and rapid loss TEMPERATE GRASSLAND “PRAIRIE” of nutrients from the soil. Rapid growth of ADAPTATIONS plants. The tropical rainforest is very thick, and not During a fire much sunlight is able to penetrate to the ○ The root portions survive to sprout again forest floor. ○ Some prairie trees have thick bark ○ Prairie shrubs readily resprout after fire TROPICAL RAINFORESTS ADAPTATIONS Roots of prairie grasses extend deep into the ground constitute nearly half of all forest land and Extensive root systems - prevent animals contain more species of plants and animals from pulling them than all the other biomes combined Prairie grasses have narrow leaves - loss Drip tips and waxy surfaces - water run off water more Buttresses and prop and stilt roots - help Grasses grow from near their base, not hold up plants from tip Some plants climb on others plants Grasses are wind pollinated Flowers on the forest floor are designed to Soft stems - bend lure animal pollinators due to no wind Smooth bark and smooth or waxy flowers DESERT speed the run off of water Plants have shallow roots - capture Very dry and often hot nutrients Rain often comes all at the same time. Many bromeliads are epiphytes (plants that The rest of the year is very dry. live on other plants); Lots of direct sunlight shining on the plants. Epiphytic or orchids have aerial roots Soil is often sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water. TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS Winds are often strong, and dry out plants. Plants are exposed to extreme The temperate rainforest features minimal temperatures and drought conditions. seasonal fluctuation of temperature: the Plants must cope with extensive water loss. winters are mild and the summers cool. Condensation from coastal fogs also adds DESERT PLANT ADAPTATIONS to the dampness. The soil is poor in nutrients. Some plants, called succulents A nurse log is a fallen tree which, as it Some plants have no leaves or small decays, provides ecological facilitation to seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains. seedlings. Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water. TEMPERATE RAIN FORESTS ADAPTATION 5  Epiphytes such as mosses and ferns grow atop other plants to reach light. Cool temperatures lead to slow decomposition but seedlings grow on “nurse logs” to take advantage of the nutrients from the decomposing fallen logs. Trees can grow very tall due to the amount of precipitation. SAVANNA has limited rainfall and fairly constant temperatures rolling grassland with isolated shrubs and trees CHAPPARA shrubland with infrequent fires plants here are locally adapted to their unique environment WATER PLANT ADAPTATIONS Underwater leaves and stems are flexible Some plants have air spaces in their stems Submerged plants absorb water, nutrients and dissolved gases through the leaves directly from the water. Roots and root hairs reduced or absent Some plants have leaves that floats atop the water In floating plants chlorophyll is restricted to upper surface of leaves (part that the sunlight will hit) Some plants produce seeds that can float 6  MODULE 2: Significance of Botany in Pharmacy PHARMACOGNOSY from the Greek word, ○ pharmakon - ‘remedy’, and ○ gignosco - ‘knowledge’. deals with all medicinal plants, including those yielding complex mixtures, which are used in the form of ○ crude herbs (comminuted herbal substance) or ○ extracts (phytotherapy), pure compounds such as morphine, ○ and foods having additional health benefits only in the context of having preventive effects (nutraceuticals). Types of drugs derived from plants: Natural products or compounds isolated from nature Herbal drugs derived from specific parts of a medicinal plant Nutraceuticals or ‘functional foods’ MOST IMPORTANT DRUGS PRODUCED AND SYNTHESIZED FROM PLANTS COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME USES Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) MEADOWSWEET Filipendula ulmaria has an anti-inflammatory and analgesic property bark as a source of Salicin and derivatives WILLOW Salix purpurea (model for aspirin), use for chronic and acute inflammatory conditions source of digoxin PURPLE FOXGLOVE Digitalis purpurea treatment for cardiac problems quinine was derived from Cinchona spp; Cinchona the bark CINCHONA TREE pubescens It is used for the primary treatment for malaria. source of taxol PACIFIC YEW Taxus brevifolia chemotherapeutic (treatment for cancer) 7  vincristine and vinblastine was isolated PERIWINKLE Catharanthus roseus used as a antitumor drug source of caffeine COFFEE Coffea arabica stimulant source of caffeine TEA Camellia sinensis stimulant Morphine OPIUM POPPY Papaver somniferum analgesic Galanthamine SNOWDROP Galanthus and Leucojum spp management of cognitive disorders. HERBAL DRUGS DERIVED FROM SPECIFIC PARTS OF A MEDICINAL PLANT wort HERB OF ST. JOHN’S WORT Hypericum perforatum depression used for cognitive deficiencies such as LEAVES OF GINKGO BILOBA Ginkgo biloba impairment of memory, anxiety Cassia senna leaves and pods LEAVES AND PODS OF SENNA Constipation mild gastrointestinal FLOWER HEADS OF Chamomilla recutita complaints and as an CHAMOMILE anti-inflammatory agent NUTRACEUTICALS OR FUNCTIONAL FOODS garlic, ginger, turmeric and many other herbs and spices ANTHOCYANIN ○ flavonoid-containing plants such as bilberries, cocoa and red wine CAROTENOID ○ containing plants such as tomatoes, carrots and many other vegetables MOST IMPORTANT DRUGS PRODUCED AND SYNTHESIZED FROM PLANTS COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME USES BAWANG Allium sativum anti cholesterol AKAPULKO Cassia alata antifungal 8  BAYABAS Psidium guajava oral/skin antiseptic guava YERBA BUENA Mentha arvensis analgesic/antipyretic peppermint treatment of arthritis PANSIT-PANSITAN Peperomia pellucida and gout (anti ulasimang bato uricemia) LAGUNDI Vitex Negundo asthma / cough 5 leaved chaste tree AMPALAYA lowering blood sugar Momordica charantia and anti diabetes used to eliminate NIYOG-NIYOGAN Quisqualis indica intestinal parasites Chinese honey suckle (anthelmintic) TSAANG GUBAT Carmona retusa mouth wash SAMBONG treat kidney stones or Blumea balsamifera Ngai camphor anti urolithiasis 9  Eukaryotic Cell MODULE 2: ○ have true nucleus containing DNA Significance of Botany in ○ Ex: fungi, plants and animals Pharmacy CELLS Smallest living unit Robert Hooke - first saw cells in 1665 CELL THEORY All biological organisms are composed of PLANT CELL VS ANIMAL CELL cells Cells are the basic unit of life PLANT CELL ONLY All life comes from pre-existing life ○ Chloroplast ○ Cell wall ANIMAL CELL ONLY DEVELOPERS OF CELL THEORY ○ Centrioles MATTHIAS SCHLEIDEN (1838) PLANT CELL STRUCTURES Stated all parts composed of cells PLANT CELL THEODOR SCHWANN (1839) Basic building block of plant life, and they Stated all animals also composed of cells –thus carry out all the functions necessary for claimed all living things composed of cells survival. They are eukaryotic cells, which have a RUDOLF VIRCHOW (1858) true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out All cells come from preexisting cells different functions. A. CELL WALL CYTOLOGY It is composed of cellulose (main The study of the structure and the function component) and other substances like of cells lignin, suberin, and cutin. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and TWO PRIMARY KINDS OF CELLS considered a complex sugar because it is used in both protection and structure. Prokaryotic Cell ○ have no true nucleus, the DNA is B. CYTOPLASM coiled up in a region called the nucleoid. Cell jello ○ Ex: Bacteria It is present within the cell membrane of all cell types and contains all organelles and cell parts responsible for giving a cell its shape and most chemical processes take place herE C. CYTOSKELETON “Framework” Involved in the movement within the cell 10  Functions: maintains cell shape and help in SMOOTH ER internal movement and motility Microtubules - made up of protein tubulin Ribosomes aren’t attached. Microfilaments - made from G-actin Lipids and Phospholipids are synthesized protein B. RIBOSOMES MICROTUBULES These are dense granules present in the large tubular structures composed of the cytoplasm involved in protein synthesis. protein tubulin It may be free or attached to the Move chromosomes during cell division endoplasmic reticulum (spindle fibers) The location of the ribosomes in a cell Part of the structure of cilia and flagella determines what kind of protein it makes D. MICROBODIES C. MITOCHONDRIA Small, spherical organelles with Double layered organelle of the plant cell specialized enzymes and are bound by ○ Cristae - inside folds single membrane Its main function is to perform cellular ○ Peroxisome respiration and to regulate cellular ○ Glyoxysome or Glyoxysome metabolism. ○ Lysosomes “Powerhouse of the cell” LYSOSOME D. PLASTIDS It is an organelles that contain digestive They occur in a variety of shapes and sizes enzymes. (only in animal cells) (with the chloroplast) For higher plants, the chloroplast resembles PEROXISOME 2 frisbees glued together. Higher plants have more chloroplast. membrane-bound packet of oxidative ○ Grana - found within the chloroplast enzymes. formed from membranes like a stack Contain enzymes needed by plants to of coins survive during hot conditions (process is ○ Thylakoids - stacks of 2-100 found PHOTORESPIRATION) in each granum; it contains green CHLOROPHYLL pigments; where GLYOXYSOME the 1st steps of photosynthesis happen It convert the fatty acids to sugar as fuel for respiration (eg. seed germination) TYPES OF PLASTIDS CHROMOPLAST CYTOPLASMIC STRUCTURES Green plastids A. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM Contains chlorophyll and carotenoid (orange-yellow) System of membrane-bound channels visible only under the electron microscope. LEUCOPLAST Facilitates the transport of materials within the cell. Colorless plastids Connected with the outer membrane of the Some are involved in the: nucleus ○ storage of starch(amyloplast) ○ oil (elaioplast) ROUGH ER ○ air storage of proteins (aleuroplast) Ribosomes are attached. CAROTENOID Synthesis of proteins 11  Plastids with red and yellow pigments called Condensed chromatin strands carotenoids Contains the “genes” that determines the hereditary characteristics of the cell E. GOLGI BODIES Controls the activity of the cell Composed of circular, flattened vesicles of F. NUCLEOLUS cisternae aligned in stacks. “Packaging of proteins” areas, transport of Its primary function is to assemble substances to and from the cell. ribosomes, the largest structure in the cell Named after CAMILO GOLGI nucleus. (DISCOVERER, 1898) The nucleus organizes regions of chromosomes which harbor the genes for F. CELL MEMBRANE pre-rRNA, and are the foundation for the nucleolus. Selectively permeable which regulates the entrance and exit of substances in a cell. protect the cell from its surroundings. INCLUSION BODIES G. PLASMODESMA A. VACUOLE Holes all over the cell wall which allows the Filled with aqueous solutions containing nutrients to enter the cell and also allows various dissolved substances the waste to exit the cell. Bound by VACUOLAR MEMBRANES ○ Tiny strands of cytoplasm thread (tonoplast) that connects and extends between similar function with plasma membrane cell openings Useful for maintaining cell structure and Chemical communication water balance Used for the storage of waste and food STRUCTURE OF A NUCLEUS B. CELL SAP A. NUCLEUS Fluid portion of the vacuole Slightly acidic, vacuole also contains sugar, stores DNA and acts as a cell’s command organic acids, and soluble proteins center. control center of the cell CYTOPLASMIC STREAMING / PROTOPLASMIC B. NUCLEAR ENVELOPE STREAMING surrounds the nucleus. circulation of fluid substance (cytoplasm) semi-permeable membrane that regulates and organelles within the cell. the passage of substance into and out of Light has an induced effect on cyclosis. the nucleus ○ Exposure to photons enables chloroplasts to move around C. NUCLEAR SAP / NUCLEOPLASM resulting in increased photosynthetic efficiency. The fluid portion of the nucleus this process aids in transport products of D. CHROMATIN the cell (ion, protein, nutrients, metabolite) to all areas Darkly staining material suspended within the nucleoplasm Portion of the chromosome visible only RHOEO DISCOLOR when the cell is dividing. A. STOMATA E. CHROMOSOMES Are dotted tiny openings or pore that is 12  used for gas exchange. They are mostly chromosomes begin found on the under-surface of plant leaves (or sometimes upper) which allows entry of MITOSIS CO2 and the diffusion of O2. Where one cell divides into two and each of B. GUARD CELLS the two cells to produce two more daughter cells Controls water loss when the guard cells LOCATION: MERISTEM (found in roots and inflate or deflate, by opening or closing of stem tips) pores CYTOKINESIS - normally comes with mitosis; division of the remainder of the cell CHLOROPHYLL – CHLOROPLAST The daughter cells have the EXACT number of chromosomes as the parent cell The green color of the upper surface is due to the chloroplasts and chlorophyll that is present in the mesophyll cells near the upper epidermis. ANTHOCYANIN – VACUOLE The cells of the lower epidermis of Rhoeo CYTOKINESIS discolor contain this pigment that is dissolved in the cytoplasm The division of the cytoplasm to form two new cells overlaps with the final stages of mitosis. Cell plate forms down the middle of the cell, GROWTH AND DIVISION OF CELL splitting it into two daughter cells separated by a new wall. A. CELL CYCLE An orderly series of events where cells divide ○ 2 DIVISIONS: ○ Interphase ○ Mitosis Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase INTERPHASE B. MEIOSIS A period in which chromosomes are NOT visible with light microscope Living cells are NOT dividing 3 INTERVALS: ○ G1 - (growth or gap one) lengthy period after the nucleus divides; RNA are ribosomes are produced and cell increase in size ○ S - synthesis - DNA replication takes place ○ G2 - (growth or gap two) mitochondria and other organelles divide; microtubules are produced; coiling and condensation of 13  RAM - Root Apical Meristem MODULE 3: PLANT HISTOLOGY Plant Histology Histos - Tissue Logia - Study of Study of Tissue Plant Tissue System of cells A group of closely associated cells that perform related functions and are similar in structure PRIMARY MERISTEM PROTODERM ○ Outermost + forms epidermis GROUND MERISTEM ○ Ground tissue (cortex + pith) PROCAMBIUM ○ innermost ○ primary vascular tissue MERISTEMS - WHERE TISSUE ORIGINATE Regions where cell divisions reduce plant growth Apical meristems ○ Lengthen stems and roots ○ Responsible for primary growth TWO TYPES OF APICAL MERISTEM SAM - Shoot Apical Meristem SHOOT AND ROOT DEVELOPMENT 14  A. DERMAL TISSUE protects the soft tissues of plants and controls interactions with the plants’ surroundings epidermis - dermal tissue that is usually a single layer of cells covering the younger plants of a plant secretes a waxy layer LATERAL MERISTEMS called cuticle that inhibits water loss Increase width of stems LEAF - INTERNAL ANATOMY OR STRUCTURE Responsible for secondary growth 3 REGIONS: EPIDERMIS, MESOPHYLL, VEINS TYPES OF LATERAL MERISTEMS EPIDERMIS: A COMPLEX PLANT TISSUE VASCULAR CAMBIUM ○ produces secondary tissues that function primarily in support and conduction CORK CAMBIUM ○ form of a thin cylinder that runs the length of roots and stems of woody plants. ○ lies outside the vascular cambium Covers and protects plant surfaces Secretes a waxy and waterproof cuticle’ INTERCALARY MERISTEMS In plants with secondary growth, periderm replaces epidermis Grasses and related plants — neither ○ periderm → lenticel (adult plants) vascular / cork cambium Have apical meristems in the vicinity of ○ periderm → cork cells → suberin nodes (these are leaf attachment areas) ○ epidermis → stomata & cuticle Develop at intervals along stems, where, (younger plants) like the tissues produced by apical One cell thick, but few plants produce aerial meristems, their tissues add to stem roots called velamen roots length Most epidermal cells secrete a fatty substance called cutin within and on the surface of the outer walls TISSUES PRODUCED BY MERISTEMS Forms a protective layer called cuticle Simple tissues TYPICAL MONOCOT LEAF CROSS-SECTION Complex tissues 15  3 TYPES: PARENCHYMA, COLLENCHYMA, SCLERENCHYMA MESOPHYLL Where photosynthesis takes place PARTS OF A MESOPHYLL PALISADE MESOPHYLL ○ upper region with compactly stacked barrel shaped or post shaped parenchyma cells in two rows; with 80% of leaf chloroplast. SPONGY MESOPHYLL ○ lower region containing loosely arranged parenchyma cells with lots of air spaces between them, with cells having numerous chloroplast. ○ NOT IN MONOCOTS PARENCHYMA INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL VIEW Have thin cell walls and large vacuoles and are most abundant of all the cells ○ Alive at maturity ○ Aerenchyma - aquatic plants Intercellular space is found Main function: Perform photosynthesis and store protein and starch ○ protein and starch → Amyloplast B. GROUND TISSUE Involved in photosynthesis, storage, regeneration, support and protection ○ Lignin, pectin + cellulose CHLORENCHYMA COLLENCHYMA 16  Composed of elongated cells and have thick FUNCTIONS: transports materials between cell walls the root and shoot of plants. ○ pectin + cellulose XYLEM No intercellular space aka — CONDUCTING SCLERENCHYMA Main function: provide support for growing Conducted water and dissolved minerals tissues like stem Conducting cells are dead and hollow at maturity consists of combinations of parenchyma cells, fibers, vessels, tracheids and ray cells VESSELS - long tubes composed of individual cells, called vessel elements TRACHEIDS - dead at maturity and have relatively thick secondary cell walls, tapered at each end, the ends overlapping with those of other tracheids SCLERENCHYMA Composed of narrow dead thick-walled cells ○ Dead at maturity Main function: Provide support for the plant (Lignin) xylem fiber is also sclerenchyma PHLOEM TISSUE Transports sugars COMPONENTS FUNCTIONS SYSTEM Main conducting cells are sieve-tube members Dermal Epidermis Periderm - Protection Companion cells assist in loading sugars Tissue (in older stems and - Prevention of System roots) water loss - Photosynthesis Parenchyma tissue Ground - Food storage Collenchyma tissue Tissue - Regeneration Sclerenchyma System - Support tissue - Protection - Transport of Vascular Vascular bundles water and Tissue - Xylem minerals System - Phloem - Transport of food C. VASCULAR TISSUE Composed of xylem and phloem which function in the transport of water and dissolved substances 17  DICOT ROOT IN CROSS SECTION FLOWERING PLANT - DICOT AND MONOCOT Dicots and Monocots have different stem and root anatomies MONOCOT ROOT IN CROSS SECTION 18  MODULE 4: TYPES OF ROOT SYSTEMS ROOT PLANT ORGANS Tap Root System ○ thick main root in the middle Vegetative - non reproductive Fibrous Root System ○ root, stem, leaves ○ thin, web-like Reproductive - reproductive ○ flowers, fruit seeds DIGGING DEEP WITH ROOTS FUNCTIONS OF ROOTS Anchorage of the plant in soil Absorption of waters and minerals ○ the xylem transports the water upward to the shoot Conduction of water and minerals upward to the stem Reproduction in the form of plant propagation Storage of food HOW ROOTS DEVELOP? TAPROOT SYSTEM Radicle embryo’s Found in Dicot plants first root The primary root grows longer and Above the radicle thicker than the secondary roots is the embryonic stem called ADVANTAGES OF Hypocotyl TAPROOTS supporting the Anchors plant cotyledon deeply, helping to Radicle emerge prevent the wind from the seed from blowing them through micropyle off while the shoot emerge from the Plumule Food storage — embryonic shoot Drought tolerance EXAMPLE: CARROTS THE TAPROOT SYSTEM Main root is used for human and animal consumption 19  ○ carrots, yam, turnips, sweet potato CANNOT WITHSTAND DROUGHT Taproot swollen EXAMPLE: GRASS ○ a single large taproot extending from stem COMPARISON OF TAPROOTS Taproot primary ○ larger than average root going deeper into the soil Taproot even ○ a number of large equal-sized taproots COMPARISON OF TAPROOTS ROOT STRUCTURE Root growth begins with seed germination Primary root growth is controlled by APICAL MERISTEM FIBROUS ROOT SYSTEM Secondary growth is controlled by Found in monocot LATERAL MERISTEM plants secondary roots EXTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A ROOT continue to grow & 1. Primary root - 1st root, eventually all the roots embryo are of equal or nearly 2. Secondary root - from equal size primary 3. Tertiary root - grows ADVANTAGES OF from various directions, TAPROOTS anchorage of plants Absorbs water and nutrients quickly Helps prevent soil erosion as they anchor INTERNAL ROOT STRUCTURE plants to have top layers of soil 20  FOUR REGIONS OF A TYPICAL ROOT 1. Root cap ○ thimble shape ○ protects the growing root tip 2. Region of Cell division ○ meristematic region 3. Region/Area of elongation ○ root lengthening 4. Region/Area of REGION OF MATURATION OR DIFFERENTIATION maturation Mature cells (not ○ fully developed & become adult dividing anymore) cells Root Hairs are formed ○ extension of ROOT CAP epidermal cell 1. Location Specialization ○ tip Inside of the root 2. Tissue - Calyptrogen ○ Xylem ○ parenchymal Outside of the root cells ○ Epidermis ○ give rise to root cap ROOT HAIR 3. Shape - Thimble 4. Functions: tubular outgrowth of a hair-forming cell on ○ Protection the epidermis of a plant root ○ Mucilage Cuticle exists on root but secretes slimy not on root hairs sub to grow smoothly ○ Gravitropism FUNCTION OF ROOT HAIRS growth towards sunlight Increase the surface area for ○ Amyloplast the absorption of water and staloliths, gravity sensors minerals nutrients _______________________________________ REGION OF CELL DIVISION - MERISTEMATIC REGION 1. Apical meristem ○ cells divide once or twice per day ○ The transitional meristems arise from the tips of roots and shoots. 2. Divided into 3 meristermatic areas: ○ Protoderm - forms epidermis ○ Ground Meristem - forms ground tissue ○ Procambium - forms vascular tissues EPIDERMIS outer layer CORTEX parenchymal, storage lying between the epidermis and inner tissues ENDODERMIS inner boundary of cortex 21  endodermal cell contains lignin + suberin Xylem & Limited in Numerous in = cell wall Phloem numbers numbers CASPARIAN STRIP bands of endodermis Pith Absent Large and well wax (suberin) around endodermis developed regulates water and mineral uptake and transport by the roots The secondary growth occurs in the dicot root VASCULAR CYLINDER “Stele” while it is absent in monocot root lies to the inside of the endodermis contains pericycle, xylem and phloem PERICYCLE parenchyma tissue, divide to produce lateral roots SECONDARY GROWTH IN DICOT ROOTS Many roots have secondary growth when lateral meristems are produced Pith in dicot roots, the xylem and phloem of the stele are arranged in an X shape In monocot roots, the vascular tissue is arranged in a ring around the pith SPECIALIZED ROOTS A. FOOD-STORAGE ROOTS Roots are enlarged and store large 1. In woody dicots and conifers, parts of the quantities of starch and other pericycle and the parenchyma cells carbohydrates, which may later be used around the primary xylem and phloem for extensive growth become a vascular cambium ○ sweet potatoes, yams (Dioscorea 2. The cells of the root vascular cambium alata), cassava divide to produce secondary phloem to the Potato is a specialized root outside of the root and secondary xylem to ○ underground STEM (Stem tuber) the inside 3. The patches of new secondary vascular B. WATER-STORAGE ROOTS tissue merge together with the primary Plants that grow in arid regions are known vascular tissue, forming a circular ring of for growing structures to used to retain vascular tissue water & used these water supply when the supply in soil is inadequate the pericycle gives rise to cork cambium ○ Cucurbitaceae: watermelon in the roots. ○ Cucurbita maxima - pumpkin cork cambium produces cork which ○ Maran oreganus - manroots, becomes part of the bark of the root. ○ Cucurbita perennis - calabazilla, DICOT ROOT VS MONOCOT ROOT ○ Citrullus lanatus - watermelon PARTS DICOT ROOT MONOCOT ROOT C. PROPAGATIVE ROOTS Produces adventitious buds along the Pericycle It gives rise to The pericycle roots that grow near the surface of the lateral roots, cork present only ground. cambium and the produces lateral Buds develop into aerial stems (suckers) part of the roots The rooted suckers can be separated from vascular cambium the original root & grow individually ○ Prunus avium - cherries 22  ○ Malus domestica - apple ○ Pyrus communis - pear G. PARASITIC ROOTS Parasitize their host plants via peg-like D. PNEUMATOPHORES projections called haustoria which Breathing roots to help plants that grow develop along the stem in contact with the in wet areas like swamps to get enough host oxygen NO CHLOROPHYLL Act like snorkel tubes for plants, rising up above the surface of the water so that H. AERIAL ROOTS the plant can get oxygen Can facilitate climbing and support to the ○ Avicennia germinans - black plant mangrove Orchids produce velamen roots corn plants have prop roots E. CONTRACTILE ROOTS ivies have adventitious roots Continually pull the plants deeper into the vanilla orchids have photosynthetic roots soil as the stem elongates ○ Taraxacum officinale - Dandelion I. SYMBIOTIC ROOTS ○ Hyacinthus orientalis - Hyacinth Mycorrhizae form a mutualistic ○ Lilium spp - Lily association with plant roots ○ Mutualism between a plant and F. BUTTRESS ROOTS bacterium which allows for the Large roots on all sides of a tall shallowly fixation of atmospheric nitrogen rooted tree ○ Root (food) + fungi (protection) = Provide support and stability to a tree mycorrhiza (better absorption of ○ Fig tree, other tropical trees ○ phosphorus ○ from the soil) PLANT TRANSPORT AND OTHER RELATED 2 TYPES OF MYCORRHIZAS PROCESSES ECTOMYCORRHIZAE ○ fungi grow in the outermost Diffusion or osmosis layers of the cortex cells of the From root, upwards root ENDOMYCORRHIZAE DIFFUSION ○ fungi penetrates the cortex cells, Movement of molecules or ions from a all the way to the endodermis region of HIGH concentration to a region (woody and herbaceous plants) of LOWER concentration ROOT + BACTERIA = rhizobia (nitrogen Passive transport fixation, convert N2 to NH3 (ammonia) to use by plant for protein synthesis) A. BARRIER ○ The bacterium is rewarded with SEPARATES TWO food and a place to live KINDS OF MOLECULE B. RANDOM MECHANISM OF WATER AND NUTRIENT MOVEMENT OF ABSORPTION INDIVIDUAL occurs in the EPIDERMIS MOLECULES THAT via OSMOSIS WILL CAUSE THE Osmosis - type of diffusion, high to low HIGHER TO LOWER concentration in a semi permeable MOVEMENT membrane C. EQUILIBRIUM ○ water is present in higher equal distribution of concentrations in the soil than molecules within the epidermal cells ○ epidermal cells is permeable to water 23  MODULE 5 APPENDIX A COMMON NAMES, SCIENTIFIC NAMES AND USES FOOD STORAGE ROOTS COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME YAMS Dioscorea alata WATER STORAGE ROOTS PUMPKIN Cucurbita maxima MANROOTS Maran oreganu CALABAZILLA Cucurbita perennis - WATERMELON Citrullus lanatus PROPAGATIVE ROOTS CHERRIES Prunus avium APPLE Malus domestica PEAR Pyrus communis PNEUMATOPHORES BLACK MANGROVE Avicennia germinans CONTRACTILE ROOTS DANDELION Taraxacum officinale HYACINTH Hyacinthus orientalis LILY Lilium spp 24  MODULE 5 APPENDIX B COMMON NAMES, SCIENTIFIC NAMES AND USES PHARMACEUTICAL & PHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE OF ROOTS COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME USES Tubers yield amino acids Digestive, laxative, diuretic, lactagogue and styptic GABI Colocasia esculenta lactagogue - increase lactation styptic - stop bleeding diuretic - low BP Roots yield flavonoids, phytosterol, alkaloids, amino acids, tannins, glycoside, fatty acids Roots are bitter, astringent, acrid, alexipharmic, antispasmodic, aphrodisiac, MAKAHIYA Mimosa pudica constipating, cooling, diuretic, emetic, febrifuge, resolvent, vulnerary alexipharmic - antidotal, prophylactic febrifuge - reduce fever vulnerary - remedy for wounds Yield starches (30%), pectins, simple sugars, gums, mucilage (rhizome), polysaccharides, amino acids, triterpene saponin, flavonoids Contain glycyrrhizin, a saponin glycoside that is ANIS roughly 50 times sweeter than Glycyrrhiza glabra (LICORICE) cane sugar Demulcent, emollient, expectorant, anti inflammatory, antispasmodic, alterative, diuretic and laxative Demulcent - anti inflammatory emollient - soften skin 25  Rhizomes contain phytosterols, alkaloids, glucose and fructose BIGA Alocasia macrorrhizos Rootstock considered laxative, diuretic rhizomes - underground stem Tubers contain high amounts of moisture, fat, carbohydrate BAYABANG Nephrolepis cordifolia and calcium, protein was maximum in rhizome part Roots of the roots used for conjunctivitis Tuberous roots and fruits are anodyne, antiphlogistic and BEGONIA Begonia coccinea antispasmodic anodyne - lessen pain antiphlogistic - against fever antispasmodic - muscles Root tubers have yielded sapogenins and saponins SPIDER PLANT Chlorophytum comosum anti-tumor, antiproliferative, burn, wound healing properties antifebrile, anthelmintic, antibacterial, diuretic, KOGON Imperata cylindrica febrifuge, restorative, styptic, tonic root extracts yield terpenoids, steroids, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids carbohydrate roots are considered sweet, astringent, TALAHIB Saccharum spontaneum emollient, refrigerant, diuretic, lithotriptic, purgative, tonic and aphrodisiac lithotriptic - kidney stone 26  MODULE 6: STEMS EXTERNAL PARTS OF STEM 1. Bud STEM ○ stem’s primary growing point Aerial part of the plant 2. Terminal bud Mechanical Support ○ Single bud found at the apex of the ○ where leaves and reproductive stem shots get attached 3. Bud scales Stem exposes the leaves for ○ protects lateral & terminal bud photosynthesis positions the 4. Terminal bud scale scars reproductive shoots for optimal access to ○ marks left on the stem from the pollinators and dispersal agents previous years which serve as external measure of annual growth STEM FUNCTIONS 5. Lateral buds / Axillary buds Support ○ buds that occur in the leaf axils on ○ Offer physical support for the the side of a stem leaves 6. Leaf scar Conduction ○ mark that leaves on the stem to the ○ Stems contain vascular tissue base of the leaf falls Growth 7. Petiole ○ Cell division and elongation ○ stalk that extends from the stem to Storage the base of the leaf ○ Modified to store food and water 8. Lenticel Stem as food - asparagus, broccoli, ○ pores that allow for gas exchange potato, cauliflower 9. Node ○ segment of stem where leaves and lateral buds are attached. (above STEM TERMINOLOGY or below ground 10. Internode Shoot ○ section of a stem between two ○ young stem (1 year old or less) nodes with leaves 11. Bundle scar Twig ○ used in the identification of the ○ young stem (1 year old or less) woody plants and it is a mark left in that is in the dormant winter stage the leaf scar from the vascular (no leaves) tissue attachment Branch ○ tiny bumps in leaf scar where ○ stem that is more than 1 year old vascular tissue enter the leaf from typically with lateral stems the stem radiating from it ○ bundle scars because they mark Trunk the places where bundles of ○ a woody plant’s main stem vascular tissue were located. TYPES OF STEM Herbaceous stems ○ thin, soft and green in color except that grow underground Woody stems ○ Taller, thicker and harder than herbaceous stems 27  ○ Ground Meristem to Pith (monocot) and Cortex Primordium (primordia) - developing leaves SECONDARY GROWTH Secondary Growth - Lateral Meristems ○ located in axillary buds ○ Vascular cambium to Secondary Xylem and Secondary Phloem (same function as your primary xylem and phloem) Cork Cambium (Phellogen) Phellem - Phellogen - Phelloderm ] PERIDERM IN WOODY PLANTS ○ Produces Phelloderm (inside) and Phellem (outside) ○ Cork cells are impregnated with suberin >> protection ○ Cork cells - Epidermis to Periderm >> outer bark ○ Lenticels develop beneath the stomata REMEMBER! TWO TYPES OF GROWTH IN STEMS Annual Plants don’t do secondary growth Primary Growth while Perennial plants do secondary ○ increases length of the stem growth. ○ mostly occur on Herbaceous plants ○ Annual Plants - complete their Secondary Growth entire life cycle from germination ○ increases thickness of the stem and death within one year ○ builds woody stem ○ Perennial Plants - live multiple years ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT OF STEMS TISSUE PATTERNS IN STEMS PRIMARY GROWTH Primary Growth - Shoot Apical Meristem STELES - VASCULAR CYLINDER (SAM) Primary xylem, primary phloem and the apical meristem is located in a bud, called pith terminal bud at the tip of the stem PROTOSTELE ○ Protoderm to Epidermis Simplest form of stele ○ Procambium to Primary Xylem and solid core of conducting tissues in which Primary Phloem phloem usually surrounds the xylem 28  SIPHONOSTELES Cortex & Pith Present Absent tubular with pith in the center. Common in ferns EUSTELES Present-day flowering plants and conifers have this the primary xylem and primary phloem ares in discrete vascular bundles WOODY DICOT STEMS Secondary XYLEM or WOOD is produced SPRING WOOD Vascular cambium active during the spring produces a xylem called spring wood. SUMMER WOOD Xylem with smaller or fewer vessel elements and large number of tracheids REMEMBER! Vascular and cork cambium both develop ANNUAL RINGS from primary tissue in the stem as a stem enters into secondary growth Indicates the age of the tree; but it also denotes the climate SUMMARY OF PRIMARY AND SECONDARY GROWH IN A WOODY STEM HERBACEOUS DICOT AND MONOCOT STEMS Dicot Stem Monocot Stem ONE YEAR’S GROWTH OF XYLEM IS CALLED AN ANNUAL RING Epidermis A. Trichomes Present Absent B. Cuticle Present Present Hypodermis Made up of Made up of collenchyma sclerenchyma Vascular Bundle scattered one or two Arrangement across the broken rings stem VASCULAR RAYS Bundle Sheath Absent Present lighter streaks seen on transverse cross section of tree trunk 29  ○ parenchyma cells that may be alive > 10 years ○ functions by lateral conduction of nutrients & water from the stele (thru xylem & phloem) to the cortex AS TREE AGES: protoplasts (cell w/o cell wall) of some of the parenchyma cells that surround the vessels and tracheids grow through the pits in the walls as the protoplasm continues to expand, much of the cavity of the vessel of tracheid becomes filled SAPWOOD ○ lighter, still functioning, xylem TYLOSIS (TYLOSES) closest to cambium protrusions filled with resins, gums or tannins; that prevent conduction of water SOFTWOOD AND HARDWOOD & dissolved substance ○ results to accumulation of resins, gums and tannins as well as pigments that darken color of the wood HARDWOOD - wood of dicots HEARTWOOD AND SAPWOOD SOFTWOOD - no fibers or vessel elements; only tracheids ○ softer ○ Pines and cone-bearing trees BARK all tissues outside the vascular cambium, including the phloem 1. Inner Bark - primary and secondary phloem 2. Outer Bark - periderm — cork tissue and cork cambium HEARTWOOD ○ older darker wood at the center, no LATICIFERS longer conducts materials specialized cells or ducts ○ helps strengthen the tree form extensive branched networks of ○ tree may live and function well latex-secreting cells after the heartwood has rotted woody flowering plants away common in phloem but present throughout ○ Wawona Sequoia tunnel - all parts of the plant Yosemite National Park in California LATEX “DAGTA’ a thick fluid that is white, yellow orange or red in color and consists of gums, proteins, sugars, oils, salts, alkaloidal drugs, enzymes and other substances aids in closing wounds Opium poppy - Morphine STEM MODIFICATIONS 30  RHIZOMES BULBS underground stem underground, consist of basal plate, grows horizontally growing points, flower primordia and capable of producing new shoots and fleshy scales roots found in monocots ○ Ginger, Asparagus, Bamboo, Iris TUNICATE BULBS and many ferns papery outer covering RUNNERS AND STOLONS onion tulips daffodils RUNNERS protection from digging and drying out above ground stems that run across the NONTUNICATE / SCALY BULBS soil surface lack a papery outer covering long internodes lily bulbs adventitious buds appear at alternate susceptible to damage and drying nodes along the runners ○ strawberry BULBLETS STOLONS small / secondary bulb that forms in the similar to runners but are produced angle between a leaf and stem or in place beneath the surface of the ground and of flowers on certain plants tend to grow in different directions but not horizontally THORNS ○ irish potato,plants, tubers are sharp-pointed modified stems produced at the tips of stolons honey locust TENDRILS SPINES modified to wrap around and cling to sharp-pointed modified leaf or stipule things for support (twigs) modified stem in grape & Boston Ivy it helps reduce water loss leaf parts in peas and cucumber base of the petiole of most leaves of the black locust is a pair of spines CORMS (CORMELS) below-ground, compressed, swollen PRICKLES vertical stem sharp outgrowth from the epidermis or store food bark Papery covering raspberries and roses - originate from crocus and gladiolus epidermis are neither thorns or spines CLADOPHYLLS flattened leaf-like stems ○ photosynthesis ○ store water ○ prickly pear cactus Phylloclades (filokleyd) ○ flattened stems that resemble leaves that can continue growing interdeterminately (scale-like leaves) TUBERS swollen, fleshy, underground stem tuber body is comprised of many parenchyma cells that contain amyloplasts with starch ○ store food 31  MODULE 6 APPENDIX A COMMON NAMES, SCIENTIFIC NAMES AND USES RHIZOMES COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME GINGER Zingiber officinale ASPARAGUS Asparagus officinalis BAMBOO Bambusa vulgaris STEMS WITH PHARMACEUTICAL AND PHARMACOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE COMMON NAME SCIENTIFIC NAME USES chewed stem in nostrils to BUTTON Eryngium aquaticum spp arrest epistaxis SNAKEROOT epistaxis - nosebleeding oil from leaves & wood used in cold remedies & liniments CAMPHOR Cinnamomum camphora liniments - lotion to relieve pain bark extract widely used as CASCARA Rhamnus purshiana laxative root bark extract used in intestinal problems like diverticulosis & Crohn’s disease Hirsutin component - lowers CAT’S CLAW Uncaria tomentosa BP Alkaloid property ○ inhibits platelet clotting ○ increase brain serotonin level Tea from bark is used for CHERRY (WILD) Prunus serotina coughs and colds bark extract - nasal stuffiness CHINESE Magnolia officinalis & discharge MAGNOLIA Magnolia quinquepeta drain sinuses and alleviate asthma and sinus headache 3