Proteins Part 2: Lecture Notes (BIQC-101)

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PoeticSilicon

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Dr. Saleh Mahdi Salman

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protein classification biochemistry biology protein structure

Summary

These lecture notes cover the fundamental principles and perspectives in biochemistry, focusing on protein classification. The document details various methods for classifying proteins, including examples based on chemical composition, shape, biological function, and solubility in water.

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‫ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ‪www.onlinedoctranslator.com -‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﻣﻴﺤﺮﻻﻧﻤﺤﺮﻻ ﷲ ﻣﺴﺐ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻓﻲ‬...

‫ﻣﺘﺮﺟﻢ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻹﻧﺠﻠﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻌﺮﺑﻴﺔ ‪www.onlinedoctranslator.com -‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﻣﻴﺤﺮﻻﻧﻤﺤﺮﻻ ﷲ ﻣﺴﺐ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺒﺎﺩﺉﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻭﻭﺟﻬﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﻃﺒﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎءﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎء ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺠﺰء‪2‬‬ ‫‪2‬ﺍﺧﺘﺼﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲﻣﺤﺎﺿﺮﺓ ﻃﺒﻴﺔ ﻭﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎء ﺣﻴﻮﻳﺔ )‪(BIQC-101‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻔﺼﻞﺍﻟﺪﺭﺍﺳﻲ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻲ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ‬ ‫ﺃ‪.‬ﺩ ‪ /‬ﺻﺎﻟﺢ ﻣﻬﺪﻱ ﺳﻠﻤﺎﻥ‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺃﻫﺪﺍﻑﺍﻟﺘﻌﻠﻢ‬ ‫‪.1‬ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﻓﻘﺎً ﻟﻤﻌﺎﻳﻴﺮ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﺑﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺫﻟﻚ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﻭﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻓﻲﺍﻟﻤﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺻﻒ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺨﺪﺍﻡ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻌﻼﻗﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﻭﻇﻴﻔﺘﻪ‬ ‫‪.3‬ﺷﺮﺡ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ ﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻬﺎﻣﺔ‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻝ‬ ‫ﻃﺮُﻕ‬ ‫ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻒ‬ ‫ﺗﻢﺍﻗﺘﺮﺍﺡ ﺍﻟﺘﺼﻨﻴﻒ‪.‬ﺃﺩﻧﺎﻩ ‪ ،‬ﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰﺃﺳﺎﺱ ‪.1‬ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻲ‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬ ‫‪.3‬ﻭﻇﺎﺉﻒ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻮﺍﺩﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﻌﺒﻴﺮ‬ ‫‪.4‬ﺍﻟﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺬﻳﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞ‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫ﻏﻴﺮﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء ‪ -‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ )ﻛﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺇﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ( ﻗﺎﺑﻞ ﻟﻠﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء‪Globu -‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻻﺭ ) ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺸﺎء(‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ )ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ )ﺍﻟﺰﻻﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺯﻣﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻣﺮﻛﺐ)ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻓﻖ( )ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ(‬ ‫ﺃﻟﻔﺎﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺟﻠﻴﻜﻮﻓﺮﻳﻦ ‪،‬ﻓﻴﺒﺮﻭﻧﻜﺘﻴﻦ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﻋﺪﺓ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﻛﺮﻭﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻭﻣﻮﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻣﻴﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻭﻓﻴﻞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺑﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭﻳﺔﻛﺎﺯﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﻴﺐ ﻭﺻﻔﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺾ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﻬﺎﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺘﻮﻛﺮﻭﻡ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰﺍﺕﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻴﺔ )ﻫـﺍﻹﻧﺰﻳﻤﺎﺕ(‬ ‫)ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺍﻧﺴﻔﻴﺮﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺎﻗﻼﺕ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻐﺸﺎء ‪،‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺮﺍﺑﻄﺔ ﻟﻸﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ(‬ ‫)ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺇﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ( )‬‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﺍﻟﺘﺨﺰﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺩﻋﻢﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ‬ ‫ﻓﻴﺮﻳﺘﻴﻦ(‬ ‫)ﺃﺳﻴﺘﻴﻞ ﻛﻮﻟﻴﻦ(‬ ‫ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝﺍﻟﻌﺼﺐ‬ ‫ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻭ )‪N‬ﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺐ(‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﺿﻞ‬ ‫)ﺃﻧﺎﻧﺴﻮﻟﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺟﻠﻮﻛﺎﺟﻮﻥ ‪ ،‬ﻫﺮﻣﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﺸﻂ ﻟﻠﻐﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻗﻴﺔ(‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺎﻳﺔﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ )‪I‬ﻧﺘﺮﻓﻴﺮﻭﻥ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺒﺮﻳﻨﻮﺟﻴﻦ‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﻗﺎﺉﻢﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻲ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﻛﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﻜﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻲ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ‬ ‫ﻓﺉﺘﻴﻦ‪:‬ﺑﺴﻴﻂﻭﻣﻌﻘﺪ‪.1.‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺑﺴﻴﻄﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﻌُﺮﻑﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﺑﺎﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻲ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺣﻤﺎﺽ‬ ‫ﺃﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔﻓﻘﻂ‪.‬ﻭﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺯﻻﻝ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺯﻣﺎ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻣﻌﻘﺪﺓ )ﻣﺘﺮﺍﻓﻘﺔ(‬ ‫ﺗﺴﻤﻰﺃﺣﻴﺎﻧﺎً ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺠﺎﻧﺴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻨﻴﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰﺟﺰء ﻏﻴﺮ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﻲ‪.‬ﻫﻢ ﺛﻼﺙ ﻓﺉﺎﺕ‪- :‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪ (1‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺗﺴﺎﻫﻤﻴﺎً ﺑﻮﺣﺪﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻫﻴﺪﺭﺍﺕ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻤﻮﺩﺍﻟﻔﻘﺮﻱ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩ ﺍﻟﺒﺒﺘﻴﺪ‪.‬ﻋﺎﺩﺓ ‪ ،‬ﺣﻮﺍﻟﻲ ‪ 20-15‬ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻛﺮﺑﻮﻫﻴﺪﺭﺍﺕ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞﺍﻷﺭﺍﺑﻴﻨﻮﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﻮﻛﻮﺯ )‪-6‬ﺩﻳﻮﻛﺴﻲ ﺟﺎﻻﻛﺘﻮﺯ( ﻭﺍﻟﺠﺎﻻﻛﺘﻮﺯ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻠﻮﻛﻮﺯ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺎﻧﻮﺯﻭ ‪ GlcNAc) N-acetylglucosamine‬ﺃﻭ ‪ (NAG‬ﻭﺣﻤﺾ‬ ‫‪ Neu5Ac) N-acetylneuraminic‬ﺃﻭ ‪.(NANA‬‬ ‫ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻫﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.‬ﻭﻫﻮﺍﻷﻛﺜﺮ ﺷﻬﺮﺓ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻜﺮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﻏﺸﺎء ﻛﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺮﺍء ‪،‬‬ ‫‪1. Glycophorin‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺍﻟﻔﺒﺮﻭﻧﻜﺘﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺜﺒﺖ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺧﻼﻝ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻔﺎﻋﻼﺕﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻧﺐ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ‪،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺐ ﺍﻵﺧﺮ ﻣﻊ ﺃﻏﺸﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺑﻼﺯﻣﺎ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺎ ﻋﺪﺍ ﺍﻷﻟﺒﻮﻣﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.4‬ﺍﻟﻐﻠﻮﺑﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪ (2‬ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻭﻣﻮﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻃﺮﻑﺻﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬ ‫ﺇﻧﻬﺎﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﻣﻠﻮﻧﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔﺍﻟﻨﻤﻮﺫﺟﻴﺔ ﻫﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﻭﻫﻴﻢﺭﺑﻂ‪،‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﺣﺪ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦﻭﺍﻟﻤﻴﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻟﻲ ‪ ،‬ﺃﻱّ‬ ‫ﻣﻦﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻮﺭﻭﻓﻴﻞ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺣﻠﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﺭﻓﻴﺮﻳﻦ ﻣﻊ‬ ‫ﺫﺭﺓﺍﻟﻤﻐﻨﻴﺴﻴﻮﻡ ﻓﻲ ﻣﺮﻛﺰﻫﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ (3‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺇﻧﻬﺎﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺣﻤﺾ ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭﻳﻚ ﺑﻤﺨﻠﻔﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺴﻴﺮﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺜﺮﻳﻮﻧﻴﻦ‪.‬ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﻋﺎﻡ ‪ ،‬ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢ ﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔ ﻫﻴﻜﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﻋﺎﺝ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﺳﻨﺎﻥ‪.‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰﺃﺳﺎﺱ ﺷﻜﻠﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻓﺉﺘﻴﻦ‪ :‬ﻟﻴﻔﻲ ﻭﻛﺮﻭﻱ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ‬ ‫‪-‬ﻟﻬﺎ ﻭﻇﺎﺉﻒ ﻣﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻴﺔ ﻭﺗﺮﻛﻴﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﻘﺎﻡ ﺍﻷﻭﻝ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻮﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﻟﻠﺨﻼﻳﺎ‬ ‫ﻭﻛﺬﻟﻚﺍﻟﻜﺎﺉﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻲ ﺑﺄﻛﻤﻠﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﻷﻧﻬﺎ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ‪ ،‬ﺩﺍﺧﻠﻴﺎ ﻭﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺤﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺭﻫﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬ﺇﻥ ﻭﺟﻮﺩ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﺭﻫﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺤﻬﺎ ﻳﺴﻬﻞ ﺗﻌﺒﺉﺘﻬﺎ‬ ‫ﻓﻲﻫﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﻓﻮﻕ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﻴﺔ ﺷﺪﻳﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﻘﻴﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﺳﻼﺳﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﺒﺘﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺑﻬﻢ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺧﻴﻮﻃﺎً ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ﺃﻭ‬ ‫ﺻﻔﺎﺉﺢ ‪،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﻳﻮﺟﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺤﺎﻻﺕ ﻧﻮﻉ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﻓﻘﻂ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﺮﺭ ﻧﻔﺴﻬﺎ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬ﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ‪).‬ﻛﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﻭﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﺇﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ(‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻻﻳﺸﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﺣﺪ ﺑﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺎﺉﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺫﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻠﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﻨﻴﻮﻳﺎ ً)‪ 29‬ﻧﻮﻋﺎً ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺎً ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﻗﻞ( ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻣﻜﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺮﺉﻴﺴﻲ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻨﺴﻴﺞﺍﻟﻀﺎﻡ ‪،‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺗﻮﺟﺪﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﻭﺗﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺼﻔﻮﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻌﻈﺎﻡ ‪،‬ﺣﻴﺚ ﺗﻮﺟﺪ ﺑﻨﺴﺐ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﺟﺪﺍً ‪ ،‬ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻐﻀﺮﻭﻑ ﻭﻗﺮﻧﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻓﻲﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﻫﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﻣﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻛﻞ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ﻗﺎﺩﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺗﻠﺒﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺣﺎﺟﺔﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪.‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﺒﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﺜﺎﻝ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻘﺮﻧﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺮﺗﻴﺐ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﺷﻜﻞﺑﻠﻮﺭﻱ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ‪ ،‬ﺑﺤﻴﺚ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺷﻔﺎﻓﺔ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ‪ ،‬ﺑﻴﻨﻤﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺪ ﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﻟﻴﺎﻓﺎً‬ ‫ﻏﻴﺮﻣﺘﺸﺎﺑﻜﺔ ﻭﻣﻮﺟﻬﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺟﻤﻴﻊ ﺍﻻﺗﺠﺎﻫﺎﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﻀﻤﻦ ﻗﻮﺓ ﺷﺪ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺪ ﻧﻔﺴﻪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻠﺤﻮﻇﺔ‪:‬ﺍﻷﻧﻮﺍﻉ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﻟﻬﺎ ﻗﻴﻤﺔ ﻏﺬﺍﺉﻴﺔ ﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﺑﺴﺒﺐ‬ ‫ﻧﻘﺼﻬﺎﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ )ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻮﺍﻗﻊ ‪ ،‬ﻻ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﺮﺑﺘﻮﻓﺎﻥ‬ ‫ﻭﻛﻤﻴﺔﻣﻨﺨﻔﻀﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ(‪.‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺗﺸﻜﻞﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﺰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻛﻞﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺑﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﺒﺘﻴﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﻠﺰﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺣﻠﺰﻭﻥ ﺃﻋﺴﺮ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﺑﺸﻜﻞ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻲ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺠﻼﻳﺴﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﻟﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻷﻻﻧﻴﻦﻭﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﻟﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺗﺘﺸﻜﻞﺍﻟﺮﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺳﻼﺳﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﺒﺘﻴﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺧﻼﻝﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻴﻞ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﻟﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻳﺘﻢﺗﺤﻮﻳﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﻛﺴﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﻟﻴﻦ ﺑﻤﺴﺎﻋﺪﺓ ﻓﻴﺘﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﺳﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻳﺴﺒﺐﻧﻘﺺ ﻓﻴﺘﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﺳﻲ ﺍﻹﺳﻘﺮﺑﻮﻁ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺮﺽ ﻳﺸﻮﻩ ﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‪.‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ‬ ‫ﻋﻜﺲﺩﺍء ﺍﻻﺳﻘﺮﺑﻮﻁ ﺑﺎﺗﺒﺎﻉ ﻧﻈﺎﻡ ﻏﺬﺍﺉﻲ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻓﻴﺘﺎﻣﻴﻦ ﺳﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﺃﻟﻔﺎﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﺇﻧﻬﺎﺗﺸﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻮﺯﻥ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻑ ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﻟﻸﻇﺎﻓﺮ ﻭﺍﻟﺸﻌﺮ ﻭﺟﺰء ﻛﺒﻴﺮ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻄﺒﻘﺔﺍﻟﺨﺎﺭﺟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﻠﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺼﻼﺑﺔﻭﺍﻟﻤﺮﻭﻧﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻬﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﻫﻲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﻌﺪﺩ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺛﺎﻧﻲﻛﺒﺮﻳﺘﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﺎﻫﻢ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻊ ﻗﻮﻯ ﺍﻟﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ ‪ ،‬ﻓﻲ ﺗﺜﺒﻴﺖ‬ ‫ﺑﻨﻴﺔﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻭﻫﺬﺍﻫﻮ ﺍﻟﺴﺒﺐ ﻓﻲ ﺃﻥ ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻮﻑ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﻋﺪﺩﻗﻠﻴﻞ ﻣﻦ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﺒﺮﻳﺘﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺮﻧﺔ ﻭﻟﻴﻨﺔ ﻭﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺘﻤﺪﺩ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﻋﻠﻰﻋﻜﺲ ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ ﺍﻷﻇﺎﻓﺮ ﺍﻟﻐﻨﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﺒﺮﻳﺘﻴﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻹﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻳﻮﻓﺮﻣﺮﻭﻧﺔ ﻟﻠﺠﻠﺪ ﻭﺍﻷﻭﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﻮﻳﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻟﺒﻨﻴﺘﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﻔﻮﻓﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺸﻮﺍﺉﻴﺔ ‪،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺨﺘﻠﻒ ﻋﻦ ﻫﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ‪-‬ﻛﻴﺮﺍﺗﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ‪.‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻛﺮﻭﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﻨﺘﻤﻲﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻔﺉﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﻟﺪﻳﻬﻢﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﻣﻀﻐﻮﻃﺔ ﻭﻛﺮﻭﻳﺔ ‪ ،‬ﺃﻛﺜﺮ ﺗﻌﻘﻴﺪﺍً ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻠﻴﻔﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻲﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺼﺪﺩ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻢ ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻮﺭ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﺔ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺮﺑﺎﻋﻴﺔ ‪،‬ﺑﺎﻹﺿﺎﻓﺔ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺎﻛﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻮﻳﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﺸﻜﻞﻋﺎﻡ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺎء ﻭﻟﻜﻦ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺜﻮﺭﻋﻠﻴﻬﺎ ﻣﺪﻣﺠﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻏﺸﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ )ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻐﺸﺎء( ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺑﻴﺉﺔ ﻛﺎﺭﻫﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺎء‪.‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻫﻢﺑﻤﺜﺎﺑﺔ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.1‬ﺍﻹﻧﺰﻳﻤﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬ﻧﺎﻗﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺸﺎء ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.4‬ﻧﺎﻗﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻓﻲﺍﻟﺪﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.5‬ﺍﻟﻐﻠﻮﺑﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.6‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺒﻮﺏ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻘﻮﻟﻴﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻣﻦﺃﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻭﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻴﺘﻮﻛﺮﻭﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻋﻠﻰﻣﺴﺘﻮﻯ ﺍﻷﻣﻌﺎء ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺤﻠﻞ ﻣﻌﻈﻢ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺮﻭﻳﺔﻣﻦ ﺃﺻﻞ ﺣﻴﻮﺍﻧﻲ ﺑﺎﻟﻜﺎﻣﻞ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺣﻤﺎﺽ‬ ‫ﺃﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫ﺗﺼﻨﻴﻒﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻦ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺃﺳﺎﺱ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺉﻒﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻟﻮﺟﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺇﻥﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺉﻒ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺆﺩﻳﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ ﻧﺘﻴﺠﺔ ﻛﻞ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﻃﻲﺳﻠﺴﻠﺔ ﺍﻟﺒﻮﻟﻲ ﺑﺒﺘﻴﺪ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﺎﻟﺘﺎﻟﻲ ﻫﻴﻜﻠﻬﺎ ﺛﻼﺛﻲ ﺍﻷﺑﻌﺎﺩ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻭﺟﻮﺩ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻼﺳﻞ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﻧﺒﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﻟﻸﺣﻤﺎﺽﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺜﻴﻮﻝ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﺤﻮﻟﻴﺎﺕ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻹﻳﺜﺮﺍﺕ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻛﺴﺎﻣﻴﺪﺍﺕﻭﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﻜﺮﺑﻮﻛﺴﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ‪.‬ﻣﻦ ﻭﺟﻬﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﻈﺮ ﺍﻟﻮﻇﻴﻔﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﺗﻘﺴﻴﻤﻬﺎ ﺇﻟﻰ ﻋﺪﺓ‬ ‫ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.1‬ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻔﺰﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻮﻛﻴﻤﻴﺎﺉﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺟﻤﻴﻊﺍﻹﻧﺰﻳﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺮﻭﻓﺔ ﺗﻘﺮﻳﺒﺎً ‪ ،‬ﻭﻓﻲ ﺟﺴﻢ ﺍﻹﻧﺴﺎﻥ ﻫﻲ ﺁﻻﻑ ‪ ،‬ﻫﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ )‬ ‫ﺑﺎﺳﺘﺜﻨﺎءﺑﻌﺾ ﺟﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻔﻴﺰﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺴﻤﻰ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺒﻮﺯﻳﻤﺎﺕ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﺃﻱﺇﻧﺰﻳﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺾ ﺍﻟﻨﻮﻭﻱ ﺍﻟﺮﻳﺒﻲ(‪.‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪-‬ﻳﺘﻢ ﻧﻘﻞ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺼﻐﻴﺮﺓ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ﻭﻏﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﻀﻮﻳﺔ ‪،‬ﻓﻲ ﻣﺠﺮﻯ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺴﻮﺍﺉﻞ ﺧﺎﺭﺝ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻋﺒﺮ ﺃﻏﺸﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ‪،‬ﻭﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ﻣﻦ ﺣﺠﺮﺓ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ‪ ،‬ﻋﻦ ﻃﺮﻳﻖ‬ ‫ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪-‬ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔ ﻫﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫‪.1‬ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻷﻭﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﻮﻳﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﺨﻴﺔ‬ ‫ﺇﻟﻰﺍﻟﺸﻌﻴﺮﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻣﻮﻳﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.2‬ﺗﺮﺍﻧﺴﻔﺮﻳﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.3‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺭﺑﻂ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ )‪ ، (FABP‬ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻛﺔﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻨﻘﻞ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ﻟﻸﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪ -4‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﻼﺯﻣﺎ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻣﺠﻤﻌﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕﺍﻟﻜﺒﻴﺮﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺪﻫﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺆﻭﻟﺔ ﻋﻦ‬ ‫ﻧﻘﻞﺍﻟﺪﻫﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﺜﻼﺛﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﻏﻴﺮ ﻗﺎﺑﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﺬﻭﺑﺎﻥ ﻓﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻤﺎءﺑﻄﺮﻳﻘﺔ ﺃﺧﺮﻯ ؛‬ ‫‪.5‬ﺍﻷﻟﺒﻮﻣﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﻤﻞ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺤﺮﺓ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻴﻠﻴﺮﻭﺑﻴﻦ ‪،‬ﻭﻫﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻐﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻗﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻷﺩﻭﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﻞﺍﻷﺳﺒﺮﻳﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻨﺴﻠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﻠﻌﺐﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺃﻳﻀﺎً ﺩﻭﺭﺍً ﻭﻗﺎﺉﻴﺎً ‪ ،‬ﻷﻥ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺪ ﺗﻜﻮﻥ ﺿﺎﺭﺓ‬ ‫ﻟﻠﻜﺎﺉﻦﺍﻟﺤﻲ ﻋﻨﺪ ﻭﺟﻮﺩﻩ ﻓﻲ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺣﺮ‪.‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﻏﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦﻳﻨﻘﻞ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻭﻫﻲﺗﺘﺄﻟﻒ ﻣﻦ ﻭﺣﺪﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﺮﻋﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺃﻟﻔﺎ ﻭﻭﺣﺪﺗﻴﻦ ﻓﺮﻋﻴﺘﻴﻦ ﺑﻴﺘﺎ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﻫﻴﺪﺭﻭﺟﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﻭﻗﻮﻯ ﻟﻨﺪﻥ ﻭﺟﺴﻮﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻠﺢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺗﺤﺘﻮﻱﻛﻞ ﻭﺣﺪﺓ ﻓﺮﻋﻴﺔ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺟﺰء ﻏﻴﺮ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﻲ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ‪a‬ﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﺍﻃﺮﺍﻑ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺻﻨﺎﻋﻴﻪ‪،‬ﻭﻫﻮ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﻰ ﺃﺍﻟﻬﻴﻢ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻛﻞﻣﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ ﻫﻴﻢ ﺗﺮﺑﻂ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ‪+2‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺮﺑﻂ ‪ ،2O‬ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ﻳﻤﻜﻦ ﻟﺠﺰﻱء‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦﺃﻥ ﻳﺮﺑﻂ ﻣﺎ ﻳﺼﻞ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺃﺭﺑﻌﺔ ﺟﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ ﻣﻦ ‪.2O‬‬ ‫ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ‪2O‬ﻳﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺑﺎﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ‪+2‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ‪،‬ﻣﻤﺎ ﻳﺴﻤﺢ ﻟﻠﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻤﺴﻚ ﺑﺎﻷﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﺣﺘﻰ‬ ‫ﻳﺘﻢﺗﻮﺻﻴﻠﻪ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ‪.‬ﻳﻌُﺮﻑ ﻫﺬﺍ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺸﻜﻞ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻐﻴﻴﺮ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺘﻮﺍﻓﻘﻲ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺑﻌﺪﻭﺻﻮﻝ ﺍﻷﻛﺴﺠﻴﻦ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻳﺘﻐﻴﺮ ﺷﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﻤﻮﺟﻠﻮﺑﻴﻦ ﻣﺮﺓ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺃﺧﺮﻯﺇﻟﻰ ﺷﻜﻠﻪ ﺍﻟﻤﺆﻛﺴﺞ ﻣﺴﺒﻘﺎً‪.‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪.3‬ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔﻫﻲ‪:‬‬ ‫ﻓﻴﺮﻳﺘﻴﻦ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺨﺰﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﺪﻳﺪ ﺩﺍﺧﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻼﻳﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺻﻮﺭﺓ ﻏﻴﺮ ﺳﺎﻣﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻓﻮﺳﻔﻴﺘﻴﻦﺻﻔﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺾ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻤﻴﺎﺕ ﻋﺎﻟﻴﺔ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻔﻮﺳﻔﻮﺭ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﻻﻣﻴﻦﻭﺍﻟﺠﻠﻮﺗﻴﻠﻴﻦ ‪ ،‬ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﺤﺒﻮﺏ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.4‬ﺍﻟﺪﻋﻢ ﺍﻟﻤﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻜﻲ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕﻟﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﺭ ﻣﺤﻮﺭﻱ ﻓﻲ ﺍﺳﺘﻘﺮﺍﺭ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺎﻛﻞ‪.‬ﻭﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ‪ α-keratins‬ﻭﺍﻟﻜﻮﻻﺟﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻹﻳﻼﺳﺘﻴﻦ‪.‬ﻧﻔﺲ‬ ‫ﻧﻈﺎﻡﺍﻟﻬﻴﻜﻞ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻮﻱ ‪ ،‬ﺳﻘﺎﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﺨﻠﻴﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺼﻨﻮﻉ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪.4‬ﺍﻧﺘﻘﺎﻝ ﺍﻟﻌﺼﺐ‬ ‫ﻣﺜﺎﻝﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﻫﻮ ﻣﺴﺘﻘﺒﻼﺕ ﺍﻷﺳﻴﺘﻴﻞ ﻛﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺑﻚ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.5‬ﺗﻄﻮﻳﺮ ﺍﻟﺮﻗﺎﺑﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻤﺎﻳﺰ‬ ‫ﺗﺸﺎﺭﻙﺑﻌﺾ ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻢ ﺍﻟﺘﻌﺒﻴﺮ ﺍﻟﺠﻴﻨﻲ‪.‬ﻣﺜﺎﻝ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ‬ ‫ﻫﻮﻋﺎﻣﻞ ﻧﻤﻮ ﺍﻷﻋﺼﺎﺏ )‪ ، (NGF‬ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﻠﻌﺐ ﺩﻭﺭﺍً ﺭﺍﺉﺪﺍً ﻓﻲ ﺗﻜﻮﻳﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺸﺒﻜﺎﺕﺍﻟﻌﺼﺒﻴﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪.6‬ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻬﺮﻣﻮﻧﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺇﻧﻬﺎﺟﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ ﺗﻨﻈﻴﻤﻴﺔ ﺗﺸﺎﺭﻙ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻢ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻌﺪﻳﺪ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻟﻮﻇﺎﺉﻒﺍﻟﺨﻠﻮﻳﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﺜﻴﻞ ﺍﻟﻐﺬﺍﺉﻲ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻟﺘﻜﺎﺛﺮ‪.‬ﻭﻣﻦ‬ ‫ﺍﻷﻣﺜﻠﺔﻋﻠﻰ ﺫﻟﻚ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﻭﺍﻟﺠﻠﻮﻛﺎﺟﻮﻥ ﻭﻫﺮﻣﻮﻥ ﺍﻟﻐﺪﺓ ﺍﻟﺪﺭﻗﻴﺔ‬ ‫)‪.(TSH‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪.7‬ﺍﻟﺤﻤﺎﻳﺔ ﻣﻦ ﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻀﺎﺭﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻟﻐﻠﻮﺑﻮﻟﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﻲ ﻫﻲ ﺑﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﺳﻜﺮﻳﺔ‬ ‫ﺗﺘﻌﺮﻑﻋﻠﻰ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻀﺪﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺒﺮ ﻋﻨﻬﺎ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺳﻄﺢ ﺍﻟﻔﻴﺮﻭﺳﺎﺕ‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺒﻜﺘﻴﺮﻳﺎﻭﺍﻟﻌﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺪﻳﺔ ﺍﻷﺧﺮﻯ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺍﻹﻧﺘﺮﻓﻴﺮﻭﻥﻭﺍﻟﻔﻴﺒﺮﻳﻨﻮﺟﻴﻦ ﻭﻋﻮﺍﻣﻞ ﺗﺠﻠﻂ ﺍﻟﺪﻡ ﻫﻲ ﺃﻋﻀﺎء‬ ‫ﺁﺧﺮﻭﻥﻓﻲ ﻫﺬﻩ ﺍﻟﻤﺠﻤﻮﻋﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﻳﻌُﺮﻑﺍﻟﻌﺎﻣﻞ ﺍﻷﺟﻨﺒﻲ ﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﺗﺘﻌﺮﻑ ﻋﻠﻴﻪ ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ ﺑﺎﺳﻢ‬ ‫ﻣﺴﺘﻀﺪ‪.‬‬ ‫‪ -‬ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ ﻣﻦ ﺃﺭﺑﻊ ﺳﻼﺳﻞ ﻣﺘﻌﺪﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﺒﺘﻴﺪ ﻣﺮﺗﺒﻄﺔ‬ ‫ﺑﺒﻌﻀﻬﺎﺍﻟﺒﻌﺾ ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔ ﺭﻭﺍﺑﻂ ﺛﺎﻧﻲ ﻛﺒﺮﻳﺘﻴﺪ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻮﻯ ﺑﻴﻦ ﺍﻟﺠﺰﻳﺉﺎﺕ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻷﺟﺴﺎﻡﺍﻟﻤﻀﺎﺩﺓ ﻋﻠﻰ ﺷﻜﻞ "‪."Y‬ﺗﺮﺗﺒﻂ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻀﺪﺍﺕ ﺑﺄﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ‬ ‫‪-‬‬ ‫ﺫﺭﺍﻉﻣﻦ ﺫﺭﺍﻋﻲ ‪.Y‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫ﻳﺤﺘﻮﻱﺍﻟﺠﺰء ﺍﻟﻌﻠﻮﻱ ﻣﻦ ﻛﻞ ‪ Y‬ﻋﻠﻰ ﺑﻨﻴﺔ ﺃﺳﺎﺳﻴﺔ ﻓﺮﻳﺪﺓ ﻟﻤﺴﺘﻀﺪ‬ ‫ﻣﻌﻴﻦﻭﻳﺮﺑﻂ ﻣﺴﺘﻀﺪﺍً ﻭﺍﺣﺪﺍً ﻓﻘﻂ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺍﻟﺬﻱ ﻳﺘﻢ ﺗﺪﻣﻴﺮﻩ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺫﻟﻚ‬ ‫ﺑﻮﺍﺳﻄﺔﺟﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪26/3/2023‬‬ ‫‪.8‬ﺗﺨﺰﻳﻦ ﺍﻟﻄﺎﻗﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ‪،‬ﻭﺧﺎﺻﺔ ﺍﻷﺣﻤﺎﺽ ﺍﻷﻣﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺗﺘﻜﻮﻥ ﻣﻨﻬﺎ ‪ ،‬ﺗﻌﻤﻞ‬ ‫ﻛﻤﺨﺰﻥﻟﻠﻄﺎﻗﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﺗﺄﺗﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺮﺗﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﺜﺎﻧﻴﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ ﺍﻷﻧﺴﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﺪﻫﻨﻴﺔ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲﻓﻲ ﻇﺮﻭﻑ ﻣﻌﻴﻨﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻣﺜﻞ ﺍﻟﺼﻴﺎﻡ ﻟﻔﺘﺮﺍﺕ ﻃﻮﻳﻠﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻗﺪ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ‬ ‫ﺿﺮﻭﺭﻳﺔﻟﻠﺒﻘﺎء ﻋﻠﻰ ﻗﻴﺪ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ‪.‬ﻭﻣﻊ ﺫﻟﻚ ‪ ،‬ﻓﺈﻥ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺿﻬﺎ ﺑﺄﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ‬ ‫‪ ٪30‬ﻳﺆﺩﻱ ﺇﻟﻰ ﺍﻧﺨﻔﺎﺽ ﻗﺪﺭﺓ ﺗﻘﻠﺺ ﻋﻀﻼﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻬﺎﺯ ﺍﻟﺘﻨﻔﺴﻲ ‪،‬‬ ‫ﻭﻭﻇﻴﻔﺔﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﻋﺔ ‪ ،‬ﻭﻭﻇﺎﺉﻒ ﺍﻷﻋﻀﺎء ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﻻ ﺗﺘﻮﺍﻓﻖ ﻣﻊ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ‪.‬‬ ‫ﻟﺬﻟﻚ ‪،‬ﺍﻟﺒﺮﻭﺗﻴﻨﺎﺕ ﻫﻲ ﻭﻗﻮﺩ ﻗﻴﻢ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﻳﺔ‪.‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬

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