Professional Business Ethics Prelim.pdf

Professional Business Ethics Reading Material Course Description: This course provides a comprehensive exploration of ethical principles and practices in the business environment. It explores into the foundational theories of ethics and their application to real-world business scenarios. Students wi...

Professional Business Ethics Reading Material Course Description: This course provides a comprehensive exploration of ethical principles and practices in the business environment. It explores into the foundational theories of ethics and their application to real-world business scenarios. Students will examine key concepts such as corporate social responsibility, ethical decision-making frameworks, and the impact of ethics on business practices and reputation. Course Intended Learning Outcome: At the end of the semester, the learners are expected to demonstrate the following competencies: - Discuss extensively the basic principles and concepts in business ethics. - Identify and explain the different theories on ethics and morality - Imbibe the different Filipino Christian values on ethics and morality - Give importance and Value of ethics in business - Illustrate the importance of ethics in daily life activities - Show respect and learn to share good values with others Lesson 1: The Concept, Fundamentals of Ethics, and the Moral Challenges of Professional Ethics Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Understand and define the concepts of integrity and ethics. 2. Define three major theoretical approaches in integrity and ethics. 3. Identify ethical dilemmas and apply different theoretical approaches. 4. Learn and appreciate the concept of personal integrity. 5. Develop students' ability to present and critique moral judgment. 6. Broaden students' moral perspective and enlarge their moral obligation. 7. Practice identifying and solving ethical problems. Understanding and Defining Integrity and Ethics  Ethics: In Ayer's “Critique of Ethics and Theology,” he argues from an emotivist perspective that moral statements are expressions of emotional attitudes rather than objective truths. This challenges traditional views of ethics that assume moral facts exist independently of human feelings. Understanding ethics, therefore, involves not only recognizing the rules that guide behavior but also the underlying motivations and emotions that influence moral reasoning. Shafer-Landau’s "Whatever Happened to Good and Evil?" provides a counterpoint, defending the existence of objective moral truths. His work emphasizes that ethical standards are not merely subjective or emotional but can be based on rational principles that apply universally, regardless of individual feelings.  Integrity: Integrity involves maintaining consistency between one’s actions, values, and ethical principles. In a professional context, integrity goes beyond mere Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT  compliance with rules and includes being true to personal and professional values, even when it's difficult. Williams’ “Consequentialism and Integrity” explores how consequentialist theories can sometimes force individuals to act in ways that conflict with their personal values, leading to a loss of integrity. This highlights the tension professionals may face when adhering to moral principles in a results-oriented world. 2. The Three Major Theoretical Approaches in Integrity and Ethics  Deontology (Duty-based Ethics): Rooted in the work of Immanuel Kant, deontological ethics emphasizes the importance of duty and moral rules. Actions are judged based on their adherence to universal moral laws rather than their consequences. For example, telling the truth is always considered a moral duty, regardless of the situation's outcome. This theory is significant in professional settings where adherence to ethical codes (such as medical ethics or legal ethics) is crucial. Deontology asserts that integrity and moral duty should guide professional behavior, even when the consequences might be unfavorable.  Consequentialism (Outcome-based Ethics): As detailed in Jeremy Bentham’s “Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation,” consequentialism, particularly utilitarianism, is concerned with the outcomes of actions. The morality of an action is judged by its ability to produce the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people. John Rawls critiques this approach in “Classical Utilitarianism,” arguing that utilitarianism might sacrifice individual rights or justice in favor of overall societal welfare. Peter Singer’s “Famine, Affluence, and Morality” extends consequentialist thinking by suggesting that affluent individuals have a moral obligation to reduce global suffering, even if it requires significant personal sacrifice. This theory is often applied in business and policymaking, where decisions are made based on maximizing benefits and minimizing harm for stakeholders.  Virtue Ethics:Aristotle’s philosophy forms the basis of virtue ethics, focusing on the development of virtuous character traits such as honesty, courage, and wisdom. According to this approach, ethical behavior stems from the cultivation of these virtues, rather than from strict adherence to rules or the consequences of actions. Bernard Williams criticizes consequentialism for undermining personal integrity, suggesting that virtue ethics allows individuals to act according to their moral convictions. In professional contexts, virtue ethics encourages professionals to embody virtuous traits in their work, such as compassion in healthcare or honesty in journalism. 3. Identifying Ethical Dilemmas and Applying Theoretical Approaches Ethical dilemmas arise when individuals face conflicting moral choices. Each theoretical approach offers different guidance on how to navigate these dilemmas.  Ayer’s Emotivism: Emotivism, as discussed by Ayer, suggests that ethical dilemmas might not have objective resolutions since moral statements are simply expressions of personal feelings. In this view, resolving dilemmas depends on aligning actions with the individual’s emotional responses rather than objective moral principles. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT   Harman’s Moral Relativism: Harman’s view on moral relativism suggests that different cultural or individual perspectives influence how ethical dilemmas are resolved. In a relativist framework, there might not be a single "correct" solution to an ethical problem; instead, solutions may vary based on cultural norms or personal beliefs. This poses challenges in multicultural professional environments where diverse ethical standards may conflict.  Consequentialist Approaches: Consequentialist thinkers like Bentham and Singer argue for resolving ethical dilemmas by evaluating the outcomes. The morally correct action is the one that results in the greatest good or reduces suffering. In professional ethics, this often involves making decisions that benefit the majority, even if it means sacrificing personal integrity or the interests of a few individuals.  Deontological and Virtue Ethics Approaches: In contrast, deontological and virtue ethics approaches would focus on the actions themselves or the moral character of the decision-maker. A deontologist would resolve dilemmas by adhering strictly to moral rules (e.g., honesty, fairness), while a virtue ethicist would aim to act in a way that cultivates moral virtues (e.g., courage, compassion). 4. Learning and Appreciating the Concept of Personal Integrity Williams’ “Consequentialism and Integrity” highlights the importance of personal integrity, especially in the context of consequentialist ethics. Williams argues that consequentialism can force individuals to betray their personal moral values for the sake of outcomes, leading to a loss of integrity. In professional settings, personal integrity involves standing by one's ethical convictions, even when it conflicts with external pressures to achieve results. For instance, a public relations professional may face pressure to spin a story in a misleading way for the sake of corporate success. Maintaining personal integrity would involve resisting this pressure and ensuring honest communication. 5. Developing the Ability to Present and Critique Moral Judgment Presenting and critiquing moral judgments involves evaluating ethical situations and decisions using the theoretical frameworks discussed earlier.  Nozick’s “The Experience Machine” presents a thought experiment challenging utilitarianism by arguing that people value more than just happiness or pleasure. Nozick's critique encourages students to consider what else might matter morally, such as authenticity or meaningful relationships, beyond simple utility. This helps students develop more nuanced moral judgments.  Singer’s “Famine, Affluence, and Morality” challenges readers to rethink their moral obligations, especially in the context of global poverty. By critiquing the idea that distance or lack of direct involvement diminishes moral responsibility, Singer broadens students' moral perspectives, encouraging them to consider their role in global ethical issues. 6. Broadening Moral Perspective and Enlarging Moral Obligation Philosophers like Peter Singer argue for an expanded view of moral obligation that includes responsibilities to distant others. Singer’s utilitarian argument suggests that moral obligation Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT does not diminish with distance; affluent individuals should feel morally compelled to alleviate global suffering. This broadened perspective challenges students to think beyond their immediate context and consider their ethical responsibilities to the wider world, especially in professions that have global impact, such as international law or business. Railton’s “Alienation, Consequentialism, and the Demands of Morality” further explores how demanding consequentialist ethics can alienate individuals from their personal values or relationships. This emphasizes the complexity of moral obligations, showing that ethical decision-making can often require balancing global responsibilities with personal commitments. 7. Practicing Identifying and Solving Ethical Problems  Hooker’s "Ideal Code, Real World" provides insights into how ethical codes can be constructed to function effectively in real-world scenarios. Hooker discusses the practical application of ethical principles and how idealized ethical codes need to be adapted to fit the complexities of real-life situations. This prepares students to approach ethical problems in a pragmatic way, balancing idealism with practicality. Conclusion This lesson integrates foundational ethical theories and philosophical insights into real-world professional contexts. By examining integrity, ethical decision-making, and the challenges of moral obligations, students develop the skills needed to address complex ethical problems using various theoretical approaches. Through critical analysis and application, they learn to maintain integrity, broaden their moral perspectives, and engage in effective moral reasoning. Lesson 2: What is Philosophy? Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Gain knowledge of western philosophers, major movements, issues and philosophical systems of the ancient world. 2. Identify and learn important concepts, ideas and theories of western philosophers, major movements, issues and philosophical systems of the early modern era. 3. Achieve ways in which ethical theory is applied to specific disciplines and/or issues, including: subjects in general education and other areas of relationship? Western Philosophers and Philosophical Systems of the Ancient World Ancient Philosophy Overview:  Ancient philosophy refers to the period roughly from 600 BCE to 500 CE and is marked by the works of the pre-Socratic philosophers, Plato, Aristotle, and the Stoics, among others. These philosophers laid the foundation for Western thought, discussing issues such as the nature of reality, knowledge, and ethics. Key Philosophers and Movements: Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT   Socrates: Known for his method of questioning (the Socratic Method), Socrates focused on ethics and the pursuit of virtue. He is credited with the idea that an unexamined life is not worth living, emphasizing the importance of self-reflection in understanding moral values. Socrates believed that ethical living requires constant reflection on one’s actions. His Socratic Method (questioning everything) encourages people to examine their own beliefs to ensure they are making ethical decisions. Professional Ethics Example: In business, a manager might use this approach when deciding whether to fire an employee. Instead of just following orders, they ask: “Is this the right thing to do for both the company and the individual?” This reflective thinking leads to more just and ethical decision-making.  Plato: Plato founded the Academy and is known for his theory of Forms, which suggests that there is a higher reality beyond the physical world that consists of abstract, perfect entities. His work The Republic explores justice and the ideal state, offering insights into political philosophy and ethics. Plato believed in a higher reality beyond what we see. His Theory of Forms suggests that ideals like justice and goodness exist in a pure form, and we should strive to reflect these ideals in the physical world. Professional Ethics Example: In law, a judge might think about Plato’s theory when making a decision. Rather than focusing only on the letter of the law, they consider the higher ideal of justice. This ensures that the decision not only follows legal rules but also upholds fairness.  Aristotle: A student of Plato, Aristotle developed a more empirical approach to philosophy. He emphasized the importance of observation and classification in understanding the natural world. His ethical system, virtue ethics, focuses on achieving the good life through the cultivation of virtuous character traits such as courage and temperance. Aristotle’s virtue ethics is about developing good character traits. For him, being ethical isn’t just about following rules—it’s about becoming a virtuous person who naturally does the right thing. Professional Ethics Example: In teaching, a teacher who practices patience, empathy, and fairness helps create a learning environment where students feel respected and motivated. Aristotle would argue that this virtuous character is key to being an ethical educator.  Stoicism: Founded by Zeno of Citium, Stoicism teaches the development of self- control and resilience in the face of suffering. Stoics believed that by aligning oneself with nature and reason, one could achieve a state of inner peace. Stoics believed that happiness comes from accepting things we cannot control and focusing on what we can control, especially our reactions to life’s challenges. Professional Ethics Example: A healthcare worker, dealing with a stressful and emotional environment, might use Stoic principles to stay calm under pressure. By controlling their reactions to stress, they can focus on giving the best care to their patients, which aligns with ethical responsibilities in medicine. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT Western Philosophers in the Early Modern Era Early Modern Philosophy Overview:  The Early Modern Era (17th to 19th centuries) marks the rise of rationalism and empiricism, as well as key developments in political and ethical theory. Thinkers during this time sought to apply reason to uncover truths about the nature of reality, society, and morality. Key Philosophers and Movements:  René Descartes: Known as the father of modern philosophy, Descartes emphasized the importance of doubt in the pursuit of knowledge. His famous dictum, “Cogito, ergo sum” (I think, therefore I am), reflects his belief in the primacy of reason and self-awareness. Descartes’ idea that we should doubt everything until we have solid proof is the basis for modern science and critical thinking. His statement, “I think, therefore I am,” highlights the importance of self-awareness and reason. Professional Ethics Example: In research, a scientist should question their findings and consider alternative explanations. Descartes would say this critical self- examination ensures that their conclusions are ethically sound and reliable.  John Locke: Locke is best known for his work in political philosophy and epistemology. He developed the idea of the tabula rasa (blank slate) and argued that knowledge comes from experience. Locke's writings on natural rights laid the groundwork for modern liberal democracy. Locke believed that all knowledge comes from experience, which emphasizes the value of practical learning. He also talked about natural rights, like life, liberty, and property, which are the foundation for modern ideas about human rights. Professional Ethics Example: In politics or law, a government official might apply Locke’s thinking when designing policies. For instance, protecting the rights of citizens through laws that promote personal freedoms reflects Locke’s philosophy and aligns with the ethical responsibility to safeguard human dignity.  Immanuel Kant: Kant’s work in ethics and epistemology greatly influenced Western thought. His categorical imperative—which asserts that one should act only according to maxims that can be universalized—establishes a duty-based ethical system that contrasts with consequentialist approaches. Kant also contributed to discussions on human autonomy and dignity. Kant believed in the categorical imperative, which means you should only act in a way that could be turned into a universal law. This idea emphasizes respecting others’ autonomy. Professional Ethics Example: In medicine, respecting a patient’s right to make decisions about their own body (informed consent) comes from Kantian ethics. A doctor, before performing a procedure, would explain all the risks and benefits, allowing the patient to make an informed choice, treating them as an autonomous individual rather than as a means to an end. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT   Utilitarianism (Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill): Bentham's Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation outlines a consequentialist ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their ability to maximize happiness. Mill refined this idea by distinguishing between higher and lower pleasures, arguing for qualitative differences in happiness (as seen in Bentham's "Push-Pin versus Poetry" comparison). Utilitarianism has become a significant framework in ethical theory, influencing areas such as law, economics, and public policy. Utilitarianism is the idea that we should act in ways that bring the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. Bentham and Mill's ideas have had a major impact on public policy and law. Professional Ethics Example: When a company decides to implement cost-cutting measures, it may face a choice: Should they lay off employees or cut bonuses for executives? A utilitarian approach would focus on maximizing happiness, which might mean protecting jobs, as that helps the greatest number of people. How Ethical Theories Apply to Real-life Issues Ethical theories like consequentialism (utilitarianism), deontology (Kantian ethics), and virtue ethics are not just abstract ideas; they are frameworks that help guide our actions in real-world situations.  Utilitarianism (Consequentialism): Utilitarianism focuses on the outcomes of actions. It says that the best action is the one that leads to the most happiness. Real-Life Example: Imagine a public health crisis where the government must decide between lockdowns or keeping businesses open. A utilitarian approach would evaluate which decision minimizes suffering and maximizes overall happiness—this might mean enforcing lockdowns to save more lives, even if it leads to economic hardship.  Deontology (Kantian Ethics): Kantian ethics focuses on duties and principles rather than consequences. It emphasizes treating people with respect and following moral rules. Real-Life Example: In professional settings, like law or medicine, Kant’s ideas are often used to develop codes of conduct. For example, a lawyer has a duty to maintain client confidentiality, even if revealing information might lead to a positive outcome for others. The ethical duty to protect the individual’s rights outweighs the potential benefits of breaking that trust.  Virtue Ethics: Virtue ethics, as taught by Aristotle, focuses on developing good character traits. This is about being the kind of person who naturally makes the right choices. Real-Life Example: In leadership, a CEO who values honesty and transparency is more likely to foster trust within their team. This kind of virtuous leadership ensures that ethical behavior is maintained, not because of external rules, but because it’s part of who they are as a person.  Rawls’ Theory of Justice: John Rawls’ Theory of Justice emphasizes fairness. His veil of ignorance thought experiment suggests that people should make decisions as if they didn’t know their own status in society. This encourages fairness and equality. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT  Real-Life Example: When discussing income inequality or healthcare access, policymakers might apply Rawls’ ideas to ensure that the laws they create treat everyone fairly, regardless of their socioeconomic background. Significance of the lesson The significance of these ideas in studying Professional Ethics lies in your ability to: 1. Establish a strong foundation of ethical principles. Philosophical theories form the basis for the core principles that define professional ethics. For example:  Kant’s Deontology highlights the importance of duty and respecting individuals' autonomy. This directly influences practices like informed consent in medicine, client confidentiality in law, and fairness in business.  Utilitarianism encourages professionals to consider the consequences of their actions, pushing them to make decisions that maximize overall well-being. This can be seen in public policy, where decisions are made to benefit the majority, such as in healthcare distribution or environmental regulation. By studying these principles, professionals can align their conduct with ethical norms, ensuring that their actions are justifiable in a broader ethical context. 2. Provide a structured approach for resolving dilemmas. Professional ethics often involves navigating complex dilemmas where there are conflicting interests. The ideas of philosophers like Aristotle, Kant, and John Stuart Mill provide clear frameworks that professionals can use when making tough decisions:  Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics helps professionals focus on cultivating personal virtues such as honesty, integrity, and courage. A virtuous leader, for instance, will inspire trust and maintain ethical behavior without the need for strict rules.  Rawls’ Theory of Justice emphasizes fairness and equality, encouraging professionals in law, politics, and public service to design policies that protect the most vulnerable members of society. By applying these frameworks, professionals can systematically analyze their options, leading to more ethical outcomes. 3. Balance personal integrity with professional duties. One of the biggest challenges in professional ethics is maintaining personal integrity while fulfilling professional responsibilities. Philosophical theories address these tensions:  Kant’s ethics argues that individuals should never treat others merely as a means to an end, which helps professionals respect the dignity and autonomy of clients, patients, or employees.  Williams’ critique of Utilitarianism emphasizes personal integrity, warning against sacrificing deeply held personal values for the sake of collective good. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT  This is especially relevant for professionals who face ethical dilemmas where following orders might contradict their personal sense of morality. By engaging with these ideas, professionals learn how to uphold personal ethical values while meeting the demands of their roles. 4. Promote continuous self-reflection and improvement. Socrates' idea that "the unexamined life is not worth living" is especially relevant in the context of professional ethics. His focus on self-reflection teaches professionals to continually evaluate their actions:  In the medical field, a doctor might reflect on whether they are truly acting in the patient's best interest.  In business, a manager might question whether cost-cutting decisions are ethical if they affect the well-being of employees. Reflective practice, rooted in philosophical ideas, helps professionals remain accountable for their actions and fosters continuous ethical improvement. 5. Equip professionals to handle modern ethical challenges. Philosophical ideas help professionals navigate ethical challenges in today’s fast- changing world. For example:  Utilitarianism can guide decisions in areas like data privacy or artificial intelligence, where new technologies raise questions about how to maximize societal benefits while minimizing harm.  Kantian ethics can address issues in global supply chains, ensuring that workers are treated fairly and not exploited for profit.  Rawls’ Theory of Justice is essential when developing policies on income inequality, healthcare access, and civil rights, ensuring that society remains fair and just. Conclusion: Philosophy's Broad Reach Philosophy teaches us how to think critically about moral and ethical issues. By studying the ideas of Western philosophers, we learn frameworks that help us navigate tough decisions in our personal and professional lives. Whether it’s a doctor considering patient autonomy, a leader fostering honesty, or a public official promoting fairness, philosophical ideas shape ethical behavior in all fields. Understanding these principles helps professionals act with integrity, ensuring their decisions contribute to the greater good. The ideas from Western philosophers and ethical theories have profound significance in the study of Professional Ethics because they provide the foundational frameworks that guide ethical decision-making in various professions. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT  Lesson 3: What is Ethics? Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Gain comprehension of the basic concepts and theories of ethics. 2. Analyze and explain the philosophical study of ethics 3. Enumerate and identify moral and ethical values. Basic Concepts and Theories of Ethics Ethics is the philosophical study of morality—what is good, bad, right, or wrong in human actions and decisions. It seeks to establish principles and rules to guide human behavior in different contexts. Key Concepts:  Moral Values: These are the standards or principles that help individuals distinguish between right and wrong actions. Examples include honesty, fairness, compassion, and justice.  Ethical Theories: These are frameworks that philosophers have developed to systematically explain how we should act. o Deontological Ethics: Duty-based ethics, developed by Immanuel Kant (1724-1804), deontological ethics focuses on adherence to moral duties or rules. It argues that some actions are morally obligatory regardless of their outcomes. For example, Kant believed that telling the truth is a moral duty, even if the truth might cause harm in a specific situation. o Consequentialism: Outcome-based ethics, this theory, particularly Utilitarianism, was developed by Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832) and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). It states that the morality of an action depends on its consequences. The best action is the one that brings the greatest happiness or well-being to the greatest number of people. o Virtue Ethics: Associated with Aristotle (384-322 BCE) focused on developing virtuous character traits like courage, honesty, and generosity. Rather than following specific rules or analyzing outcomes, virtue ethics emphasizes becoming a good person who naturally makes ethical choices. The philosophical study of ethics is all about thinking deeply about what is right and wrong, examining moral values, and evaluating actions to determine whether they are ethical. Philosophers have contributed various ideas that help us understand ethical behavior, and here are some key contributions explained simply: Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT 1. Jeremy Bentham’s Utilitarianism  Main Idea: Actions should be judged based on their ability to create happiness or reduce suffering.  Explanation: Bentham believed that the best actions are the ones that make the most people happy. If something brings more happiness than harm, it's the right thing to do. His system helps us measure the moral value of an action by considering its outcomes.  Example: A company may lower its prices to make customers happy, even if it means earning less money. The idea is that overall happiness is more important than just profit. 2. Robert Nozick’s "The Experience Machine"  Main Idea: Happiness is not the only thing that matters; real experiences and personal growth are important too.  Explanation: Nozick challenged the idea that pleasure is the ultimate goal. He asked people if they would choose to plug into a machine that gave them constant pleasure but cut them off from real life. Most people said no because they value genuine experiences and personal growth, not just happiness.  Example: In a job, it’s not just about earning money or enjoying benefits. People also want meaningful work that helps them grow and feel fulfilled. 3. John Rawls’ Theory of Justice  Main Idea: A fair society is one that protects everyone, especially the disadvantaged.  Explanation: Rawls argued that society should be structured to ensure fairness for all. He introduced the concept of the "veil of ignorance," where decisions should be made as if we don’t know our place in society, ensuring that policies are fair for everyone.  Example: In a workplace, fair policies might ensure that employees, no matter their level or position, have equal access to opportunities and protections. 4. Bernard Williams’ Critique of Consequentialism  Main Idea: Ethics should consider personal integrity, not just the outcomes of actions.  Explanation: Williams criticized the idea that only results matter (as utilitarianism suggests). He believed that individuals should stay true to their personal values, even if it means not always choosing the outcome that benefits the most people. Ethics should respect personal integrity.  Example: A manager may refuse to fire employees, even if it would increase profits, because it goes against their personal values of fairness and loyalty. 5. Peter Singer’s "Famine, Affluence, and Morality"  Main Idea: People who are well-off have a moral duty to help those who are suffering, especially in global contexts.  Explanation: Singer applied utilitarian thinking to global issues, arguing that wealthier individuals and countries have a responsibility to help reduce poverty and Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT  suffering around the world. If you can help without sacrificing your well-being, you should.  Example: A wealthy professional may choose to donate to education programs in developing countries, believing that it's their responsibility to use their resources to improve the lives of others. In summary, these philosophers offer different perspectives on ethics. Some focus on the consequences of actions (like Bentham and Singer), while others emphasize fairness (like Rawls), personal values (like Williams), or the importance of real-life experiences (like Nozick). Ethics isn't just about following rules—it's about thinking deeply about what makes an action right or wrong, considering the well-being of others, and staying true to your own principles. Moral and Ethical Values The concepts of moral and ethical values serve as guidelines for determining what is right or wrong in human behavior. These values are essential in shaping both personal conduct and societal norms. Although they may differ across cultures or philosophical beliefs, certain core values are common and widely respected. Here’s an overview of some key moral and ethical values, explained with examples: 1. Honesty  Definition: Being truthful and transparent in what we say and do.  Explanation: Honesty means providing accurate information and not deceiving others for personal gain. It’s essential in building trust in relationships, whether personal or professional.  Example: A company should always report its financial situation truthfully to its investors, even if it's facing losses. Hiding bad news for personal benefit is dishonest and unethical. 2. Justice  Definition: Treating people fairly, ensuring equal rights, and upholding fairness in all decisions.  Explanation: Justice is about giving everyone what they deserve, without favoritism or discrimination. It often involves ensuring fairness and equality in how people are treated in society.  Example: In a workplace, justice might mean ensuring that everyone is paid fairly for the work they do, regardless of gender, race, or position. 3. Compassion  Definition: Feeling sympathy for others and acting to help reduce their suffering.  Explanation: Compassion is more than just understanding someone else’s pain—it also involves taking action to support or comfort them. This value fosters kindness and empathy in human interactions.  Example: A nurse comforting a patient, who is in pain, or a colleague helping another through a difficult time, demonstrates compassion. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT 4. Courage  Definition: Facing fear or challenges with strength, especially when upholding moral principles.  Explanation: Courage means doing the right thing, even when it’s difficult or risky. It often involves standing up for what is right, even when others disagree or when the personal cost is high.  Example: A whistleblower, who reports unethical behavior in their company, even though it may jeopardize their job, shows moral courage. 5. Respect  Definition: Treating others with dignity and valuing their autonomy and opinions.  Explanation: Respect involves acknowledging the worth of every person and honoring their rights to express their ideas and make decisions for themselves.  Example: A manager who listens to their employees’ concerns and treats them as valuable members of the team demonstrates respect. These values are integral to ethical theories that guide human behavior in both personal life and society. They encourage people to act with integrity, fairness, and empathy, ensuring that our actions contribute to the well-being of others and uphold justice and truth. Lesson 4: Moral intuitions and Critical reasoning Learning Targets: At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to: 1. Interpret and infer some moral intuitions and critical reasoning. 2. Cite and discuss examples of moral sentiments and moral principles. 3. Compare and differentiate ethnic and religious faith Interpreting and Inferring Moral Intuitions and Critical Reasoning Moral Intuitions Moral intuitions are like gut feelings about what is right or wrong. We don't always stop to think deeply; instead, we react based on what feels right to us. These reactions are shaped by how we were raised, our culture, and our personal experiences.  Example (The Trolley Problem): Imagine a runaway trolley. If you pull a lever, the trolley will change tracks and save five people, but it will hit one person. Most people instinctively decide to save the five, showing that we tend to think saving more lives is better, even if it costs one.  Example (Nozick's Experience Machine): Nozick asks if people would plug into a machine that makes them feel constant pleasure. Most people say no because they want real, meaningful experiences, not just happiness from a machine. This shows we care about more than just feeling good. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT Critical Reasoning in Ethics Critical reasoning is thinking things through carefully before deciding what’s right or wrong. It involves asking tough questions and considering different sides of the issue. Unlike moral intuitions, critical reasoning takes time and logic.  Example (Singer’s Argument): Philosopher Peter Singer argues that if we can help others in need without hurting ourselves, we should do it. For example, if we can donate a little money to help someone in extreme poverty, we have a moral obligation to do so. This kind of reasoning challenges our natural feelings about charity and responsibility. Citing and Discussing Examples of Moral Sentiments and Moral Principles Moral Sentiments Moral sentiments are the emotions we feel that guide our actions, like empathy (compassion), guilt, or outrage. These feelings push us to do what we think is morally right.  Example (Empathy): When we see people suffering from poverty or disaster, we often feel empathy, which makes us want to help.  Example (Guilt): If you lie to someone, you might feel guilty afterward. This guilt shows that following moral rules (like honesty) is important. Moral Principles Moral principles are the rules or guidelines we follow to make ethical decisions. They are often based on different philosophical theories.  Utilitarianism (Bentham): This principle says we should aim to make the most people happy and reduce suffering.  Deontology (Kant): This principle says we should always treat people with respect, never using them just to achieve our own goals.  Virtue Ethics (Aristotle): This principle focuses on becoming a good person by developing virtues like honesty, courage, and wisdom. Comparing and Differentiating Ethnic and Religious Faith Ethnic Faith Ethnic faith refers to religious beliefs that are tied to a particular ethnic or cultural group. These faiths are part of that group’s identity and history.  Example: Shinto in Japan or Hinduism in India. These faiths are closely linked to the people’s traditions and way of life. Religious Faith Religious faith usually refers to organized religions that are practiced by people all over the world, regardless of their ethnicity. These religions provide a set of beliefs and moral rules based on sacred texts or teachings. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT   Example: Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism. These religions offer guidance to anyone who follows them, regardless of cultural background. Comparison  Similarities: Both types of faith give people a sense of purpose and community and provide moral rules for how to live.  Differences: Ethnic faiths are often tied to a specific culture, while religious faiths can apply to anyone, no matter where they’re from. Conclusion This lesson helps learners explore both their natural moral instincts and how they can reason through ethical questions. By looking at moral emotions and principles and comparing different faiths, students gain a better understanding of how our decisions about right and wrong are shaped by many factors. Prepared by: Mr. Jess O. Pavericio, LPT