Procrastination Study - Academic Patterns

Paper 1: Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement\" by Howell et al. **Key Concept** **Theories** --------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------------...

Paper 1: Academic procrastination: The pattern and correlates of behavioural postponement\" by Howell et al. **Key Concept** **Theories** --------------------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- **Procrastination Patterns** **Academic (Procrastination)**: tendency to delay important academic tasks. **Temporal Discounting:** tendency to devalue future rewards, leading to procrastination until deadlines are near. **Hyperbolic Discounting Pattern:** a pattern where task completion accelerates as deadlines approaches. **Self-Regulation and Procrastination Variables** **Self-Regulation Failure:** inability to effectively manage behaviour to achieve long-term goals. **Implementation Intentions:** Specific plans detailing how to achieve goals. **Say-Do Correspondence:** congruence on what you say and what you do. **Perceived Academic Control:** Beliefs about one\'s ability to influence academic outcomes through effort. **Study objective**: Study explores temporal discounting as a behavioural manifestation of academic procrastination and investigate the relationship between procrastination and self-regulation variables. **Methodology:** 95 psychology students using self-administered questionnaires and computer-based assignment tracking to analyze procrastination patterns and self-regulation behaviors in relation to submission patterns. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Findings** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Temporal Discounting** | - Students showed hyperbolic | | | pattern of procrastination, | | | delaying task submissions | | | closer to deadlines. | | | | | | - High procrastinators showed | | | more pronounced submission | | | delays than low | | | procrastinators. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Self-Regulation Correlations** | - **Say-Do Correspondence**: | | | Procrastinators demonstrated | | | less tendency to act on | | | intentions or keep promises | | | to themselves. | | | | | | - **Implementation | | | Intentions**: These were | | | positively correlated with | | | say-do correspondence but | | | inconsistently linked to | | | procrastination behavior. | | | | | | - **Perceived Academic | | | Control**: Positively | | | correlated with grades but | | | not directly linked to | | | procrastination or submission | | | patterns. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Academic Performance** | - Submission delays and | | | self-reported procrastination | | | were not significantly | | | associated with overall | | | course grades. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Behavioural Evidence** | - Delays in assignment | | | submissions reflected not | | | just procrastination in task | | | completion but also in | | | submission behaviour itself. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ ** Paper 2: The Nature of Procrastination: A Meta-Analytic and Theoretical Review of Quintessential Self-Regulatory Failure by Piers Steel **Study**: Meta-analysis of procrastination's possible causes and effects, based on 691 correlations. - Constructs with **WEAK correlations**: Neuroticism, rebelliousness, and sensation seeking - Constructs with **STRONG correlations**: Task aversiveness, task delay, self-efficacy, impulsiveness, and conscientiousness and its facets of self-control, distractibility, organization, and achievement motivation. **Causes and Effects of Procrastination** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Task Characteristics** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Task Aversiveness** | - Strong predictor | | | | | | | | | | | | - \^ task is intrinsically | | | unpleasant, boring and | | | difficult \> \^ task | | | aversiveness \> \^ | | | procrastinate. | | | | | | - Two moderators | | | | | | - **Short-term projects**: | | | intensify aversiveness | | | effects. | | | | | | - **Low | | | conscientiousness**: | | | increase influence of | | | task unpleasantness. | | | | | | - Behavioural | | | procrastination \> boredom | | | and frustration. | | | | | | - Decisional procrastination \> | | | low autonomy and feedback. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Timing of Rewards and | - When rewards are distant \> | | Punishments** | hinder motivation \> people | | | procrastinate. | | | | | | - Nearer deadline \> less | | | procrastination. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Individual Differences** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Conscientiousness** | - Most significant predicator. | | | | | | - Low levels of self-control, | | | organization, and discipline | | | strongly correlate with | | | procrastination. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Impulsiveness** | - High impulsiveness make you | | | prioritize immediate | | | gratification over long-term | | | goals. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Neuroticism** | - Weak correlation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Self-Efficacy** | - Strong predictor \> low | | | self-efficacy. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Perfectionism** | - Procrastinators are less | | | likely to be perfectionists. | | | | | | - Weak correlation \> socially | | | prescribed perfectionism | | | (fear of others\' | | | expectations). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Extraversion** | No correlation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Agreeableness** | No correlation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Openness to experience** | No correlation. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Distractibility** | Important correlate. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Lack of intrinsic motivation** | Important correlate. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Demographic and Situational | | | Factors** | | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Age** | Procrastination decreases with | | | age; older people have more | | | refined self-regulatory skills. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Gender** | Minimal differences: males | | | procrastinate slightly more, | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **Effects of Procrastination** **Performance** - Procrastination negatively affects academic performance. - Linked to worse health and financial outcomes due to delays in essential actions. **Mood** - Procrastination provides short-term relief but leads to long-term stress, guilt, and lower well-being. - Mixed evidence on mood; some studies report no significant relationship. **Temporal Motivation Theory (TMT)**: A black background with white text Description automatically generated - An integrative hybrid of expectancy theory and hyperbolic discounting. - Tasks with low value or distant rewards are most procrastinated. - Components: - **Expectancy**: belief that one can succeed in completing the task. - **Value**: perceived reward or importance of completing the task. - **Delay**: perceived reward or importance of completing the task. - **Sensitivity to Delay**: individual\'s susceptibility to the effects of delay. **Paper 3: Arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastinators: Do they exist? by Piers Steel** **Introduction to Procrastination** **Definition**: Voluntarily delay in an intended course of action despite knowing it will lead to worse outcomes. **Neurobiology:** Long-term intentions are formed in the prefrontal cortex, but they can be overridden by impulses from the limbic system, which is highly responsive to immediate gratification. - **Impulsiveness**: strong correlation. **Ferrari Trichotomy of Procrastination** **Type of Procrastination** **Description** **Measurement** ----------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------ Arousal Procrastination Delaying tasks for thrills. General Procrastination Scale (GPS) Avoidant Procrastination Delaying tasks to protect self-esteem or avoid failure. Adult Inventory of Procrastination (AIP) Decisional Procrastination Postponing decisions. Decisional Procrastination Questionnaire (DPQ) Criticism: - Avoiding tasks to protect self-esteem may not qualify as procrastination. - Decision avoidance is distinct from procrastination. - The arousal, avoidance, and decisional distinctions lack strong evidence. - Procrastination is predominantly a unified concept of irrational delay. **Findings** - Procrastination Defined as **Irrational Delay**: - Procrastination is best understood as the voluntary delay of tasks despite foreseeable negative outcomes. - Strongly correlated with impulsiveness and immediate gratification. - **Meta-analysis:** Minimal support for Ferrari's tripartite model. - Factor analysis revealed three factors: general procrastination, rushing appointments, and promptness. - Only the first factor aligns strongly with procrastination. - **Pure Procrastination Scale (PPS)**: - Unified measure of procrastination based on the concept of dysfunctional delay. - High reliability and stronger correlations with related constructs (e.g., subjective well-being, impulsiveness). **Paper 4: Longitudinal Study of Procrastination, Performance, Stress and Health by Tice and Roy** **Study objectives**: Two longitudinal studies examining procrastination among students. **Study findings**: Positive short-term & negative longer term health effects. **When procrastination is (not) beneficial?** **Procrastination** - No correlation between procrastination & intelligence. - Procrastinators receive lower grades than non-procrastinators **Health** - Short term benefits to health \> procrastinators benefit from the carefree situation they made for themselves. - Stress is lowered & illness is reduced by putting off the task. - Stress and health benefits are reversed as time goes by. - Procrastination may produce initial benefits but produce significant cost later. - Total stress and illness are higher for procrastinators than non-procrastinators \> stress does not level out. - Procrastinators produce inferior work. - Current studies do not have support for the claim that procrastinators do better work because of motivation but rather support for compromising quality of work. +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Paper 5: Evidence That | | | Implementation Intentions Can | | | Overcome the Effects of Smoking | | | Habits\" by Christopher J. | | | Armitage** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Study Objective** | Investigate how implementation | | | intentions (\"if--then\" and | | | \"when--then\" plans) help | | | smokers quit by overcoming the | | | automaticity of smoking habits. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Main Concepts** | **Smoking Habits and Addiction:** | | | | | | - **Smoking is a habitual | | | behavior, often triggered | | | automatically by | | | environmental cues, making it | | | difficult to quit even for | | | motivated individuals.** | | | | | | - **Habits are learned | | | responses that operate | | | automatically in specific | | | contexts, creating a strong | | | barrier to behavior change.** | | | | | | **Implementation Intentions**: | | | | | | - Psychological strategy that | | | uses \"if--then\" or | | | \"when--then\" plans to | | | promote goal-directed | | | behavior. | | | | | | - Structure: | | | | | | - **\"If\" (or \"When\")** | | | identifies a critical | | | situation (trigger). | | | | | | - **\"Then\"** specifies an | | | alternative response to | | | replace the habitual | | | behavior. | | | | | | - Example: *\"If I feel | | | stressed, then I will | | | chew gum instead of | | | smoking.\"* | | | | | | - Purpose: Automates behavior | | | change by linking situational | | | cues with appropriate | | | responses. | | | | | | **Habit Disruption**: | | | | | | - Implementation intentions | | | disrupt the automaticity of | | | habits by enhancing awareness | | | of situational triggers and | | | predefining alternative | | | actions. | | | | | | - This strategic automaticity | | | replaces habitual responses | | | with healthier choices. | | | | | | **Certainty of Cues (\"If--Then\" | | | vs. \"When--Then\")**: | | | | | | - Hypothesized that framing | | | triggers as certain | | | (\"when\") rather than | | | hypothetical (\"if\") might | | | enhance the salience of | | | critical situations and | | | improve outcomes. | | | | | | - Result: Certainty (\"if\" vs. | | | \"when\") did not | | | significantly impact the | | | effectiveness of | | | implementation intentions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hypothesis** | 1. Individuals who form | | | implementation intentions | | | (either \"if--then\" or | | | \"when--then\") will show: | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | 2. Certainty affects the | | | operation of implementation | | | intentions (Certainty | | | hypothesis): | | | | | | - Plans phrased with certainty | | | (\"when--then\") will be more | | | effective in triggering | | | behavioural change compared | | | to those framed with | | | uncertainty (\"if--then\"). | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Methodology** | - **Study Design**: | | | | | | - A **2×2 factorial | | | design**: | | | | | | - Factors: (1) | | | Intervention vs. | | | Control, (2) | | | Certainty of cues | | | (\"if\" vs. | | | \"when\"). | | | | | | - Groups: Intervention | | | (\"if--then\" and | | | \"when--then\") and | | | Control (no | | | implementation | | | intentions). | | | | | | - Measures: Smoking habits, | | | cravings, nicotine | | | dependence, and | | | self-reported smoking | | | behavior, assessed at | | | baseline and one-month | | | follow-up. | | | | | | - **Participants**: | | | | | | - 168 adult smokers, | | | balanced by gender and | | | diverse in age, recruited | | | from workplaces and | | | social settings. | | | | | | - Interventions were | | | delivered via | | | **Volitional Help | | | Sheets**: | | | | | | - Participants | | | identified critical | | | smoking triggers | | | (e.g., social events, | | | stress). | | | | | | - Interventions | | | required them to link | | | these triggers to | | | specific actions, | | | e.g., \"When I crave | | | a cigarette, I will | | | drink a glass of | | | water.\" | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Results** | **Quit Rates:** | | | | | | - Intervention groups have | | | higher quit rates (15.48%) | | | compared to controls | | | (2.38%)\> implementation | | | intentions effective. | | | | | | **Reduction in Smoking | | | Behaviour:** | | | | | | - **I**ntervention groups | | | smoked fewer cigarettes daily | | | and reported lower nicotine | | | dependence and cravings than | | | controls. | | | | | | **Changes in Habits:** | | | | | | - Implementation intentions | | | reduced the automaticity of | | | smoking habits. This | | | mediation explains why the | | | intervention worked: it | | | disrupted the habitual chain | | | of triggers and responses. | | | | | | **No Advantage of \"When--Then\" | | | Over \"If--Then\":** | | | | | | - Both formulations were | | | equally effective, suggesting | | | that the certainty of cues | | | does not significantly impact | | | the efficacy of | | | implementation intentions. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ ** **Paper 6: Health behaviour procrastination: a novel reasoned route towards self-regulatory failure by Kroese and Ridder** **The Intention-Behaviour Gap** **Definition**: Discrepancy between intending to perform health-related actions and failing to act on them. **Key Models -- Theoretical Foundations:** 1. **Health Belief Model**: Explains health behaviour intentions based on perceived threat and benefits. 2. **Theory of Planned Behavior**: Emphasizes attitudes, perceived social norms, and perceived behavioural control in predicting intentions. **Intention vs. Behavior:** - Behavioral intentions do not consistently translate into actions. - Merely forming intentions (motivational phase) isn't sufficient; translating them into actions (volitional phase) is often the failure point. **Reasons for the Intention-Behavior Gap** 1. **Lack of Skills and Resources:** - Example: Intending to cook healthy meals but lacking cooking skills or equipment. 2. **Impulsive Tendencies:** - Strong immediate temptations (e.g., wine over water) overpower long-term goals. - Factors such as physiological arousal, mental fatigue, alcohol use, and visceral states (e.g., hunger) exacerbate impulsivity. 3. **Self-Licensing:** - Rationalizing indulgent behaviors (e.g., "I can eat cake because I'll exercise tomorrow"). - Allows temporary deviation from goals without feeling guilty. **Procrastination** **Definition:** Voluntary delay of an intended course of action despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. - Different from goal abandonment and impulsivity; it involves maintaining the intention to act but postponing execution. - Seen as a self-regulatory failure. **Associated Traits**: - Low conscientiousness. - Task aversiveness (tasks perceived as unpleasant or difficult). **Health and Procrastination:** - Examples: Delaying exercise, postponing medical appointments, or unhealthy eating. - Recognized as a contributor to poor health outcomes, including stress and illness. - Associated with treatment delays and fewer wellness behaviors. **Why do People Procrastinate** **Aversiveness:** - Activities perceived as unpleasant or tedious (e.g., exercising, dieting). - Linked to mood regulation (seeking short-term comfort over long-term benefits). **Low Self-Efficacy:** - Doubts about the ability to succeed can discourage action. - Especially relevant in health contexts, like quitting smoking or starting a new diet. **Vague Intentions:** - Non-specific goals (e.g., \"exercise more\") lack clarity and are easier to postpone. - Specific plans (e.g., \"go to the gym every Monday at 6 PM\") reduce procrastination. **Dynamic Intentions:** - Intentions are not static and can \"wax and wane\" based on circumstances, making actions easier to delay. **Associated Traits**: - Low conscientiousness. - Task aversiveness (tasks perceived as unpleasant or difficult). **Intervention and Implications on Future Research** **Understanding Procrastination as a Reflective Process**: - Contrasts with impulsive failures driven by immediate gratification. - People justify delays, making procrastination less obvious and more persistent. **Interventions**: - **Positive task reappraisal:** Framing activities as enjoyable or fulfilling. - **Implementation Intentions**: Creating specific \"if-then\" plans to enforce actions. - **Use of nudges and reminders**: Default settings for actions like health checkups can reduce delays **\ ** +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Paper 7: Combining motivational | | | and volitional interventions to | | | promote exercise participation: | | | Protection motivation theory and | | | implementation intentions by | | | Milne et al.** | | +===================================+===================================+ | **Study Objective** | Investigate how motivational | | | interventions based on Protection | | | Motivation Theory (PMT) and | | | volitional interventions using | | | implementation intentions affect | | | exercise behavior. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Main Concepts** | **Protection Motivation Theory | | | (PMT):** | | | | | | - Focuses on motivation to | | | adopt protective behaviours | | | through threat and coping | | | appraisals. | | | | | | - Key components: | | | | | | - **Threat Appraisal** | | | | | | - ***Perceived | | | Vulnerability***: The | | | belief about one's | | | likelihood of | | | experiencing a health | | | threat (e.g., risk of | | | coronary heart disease if | | | inactive). | | | | | | - ***Perceived Severity***: | | | The belief about the | | | seriousness of the health | | | threat (e.g., | | | consequences of a heart | | | attack). | | | | | | - ***Fear Arousal***: | | | Emotional response to | | | recognizing the threat, | | | motivating protective | | | actions. | | | | | | - **Coping Appraisal** | | | | | | - ***Response Efficacy***: | | | The belief that the | | | recommended behavior | | | (e.g., regular exercise) | | | effectively mitigates the | | | threat. | | | | | | - ***Self-Efficacy***: | | | Confidence in one's | | | ability to perform the | | | behavior. | | | | | | - ***Response Costs***: | | | Perception of barriers or | | | costs associated with | | | performing the behavior | | | (e.g., time, effort). | | | | | | **Implementation Intentions:** | | | | | | - A psychological strategy to | | | bridge the | | | intention-behaviour gap. | | | | | | - Structure: | | | | | | - \'If\' (or \'When\') | | | identifies a critical | | | situation (trigger). | | | | | | - \'Then\' specifies a | | | goal-directed response | | | (e.g., "If I get home at | | | 6 PM, I will do 20 | | | minutes of step aerobics | | | in the living room."). | | | | | | **Habit Formation and Behavioural | | | Activation:** | | | | | | - Implementation intentions | | | help predefine actions, | | | ensuring opportunities for | | | action are not missed. | | | | | | - Enhance situational awareness | | | and create strong memory | | | traces for cues. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Hypothesis** | 1. PMT-based interventions will | | | enhance motivation, | | | increasing perceived | | | vulnerability, severity, | | | response efficacy, and | | | self-efficacy while reducing | | | response costs. | | | | | | 2. Implementation intentions | | | will significantly improve | | | actual exercise behaviour | | | | | | 3. Motivation (PMT) and volition | | | (implementation intentions) | | | are distinct but | | | complementary in changing | | | behaviour. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Methodology** | **Study Design:** Longitudinal | | | design with three time points | | | over two weeks. | | | | | | **Groups:** | | | | | | - **Control** (no | | | intervention). | | | | | | - **PMT group**: Received a | | | health education leaflet | | | addressing PMT variables. | | | | | | - **PMT + Implementation | | | Intentions group**: Formed | | | specific plans (time, place, | | | and activity) in addition to | | | receiving the leaflet. | | | | | | **Participants**: 248 | | | undergraduate students (age | | | 18-34, 73% female). | | | | | | **Measures**: | | | | | | - Exercise behaviour (20-minute | | | sessions of vigorous | | | exercise). | | | | | | - PMT variables (e.g., | | | vulnerability, self-efficacy) | | | and intention to exercise. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Results** | **PMT (Motivational) | | | Intervention**: | | | | | | - Increased cognitions: Threat | | | appraisal, coping appraisal, | | | and intention to exercise. | | | | | | - No significant effect on | | | actual exercise behaviour. | | | | | | **PMT + Implementation | | | Intentions**: | | | | | | - Significantly increased | | | exercise behaviour (91% | | | participation vs. 35% in | | | PMT-only and 38% in control). | | | | | | - Reduced common barriers | | | (e.g., forgetting, being too | | | busy). | | | | | | **Mechanism of Implementation | | | Intentions**: | | | | | | - Automated behaviour | | | activation upon encountering | | | planned triggers. | | | | | | - Ensured priority of exercise | | | over competing goals (e.g., | | | exam preparation). | | | | | | **Key Observations**: | | | | | | - Motivation increased | | | intention but not behaviour. | | | | | | - Implementation intentions | | | effectively translated | | | motivation into action. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ | **Conclusion** | Motivation (PMT) alone is | | | insufficient for behavioural | | | change. Adding volitional | | | strategies like implementation | | | intentions leads to significant | | | improvements in behaviour. | +-----------------------------------+-----------------------------------+ **\ ** **Paper 8: Implementation Intentions and Goal Achievement: A Meta-Analysis of Effects and Processes by Gollwtzer** **Actor and Abstainers** **Research identified different types of individuals in the intention-behavior context:** - ***Inclined actors***: Those who intend to act and follow through. - ***Inclined abstainers***: Those who intend to act but fail to do so, contributing most to the intention-behavior gap. - ***Disinclined actors***: Those who act despite a lack of prior intention. - ***Disinclined abstainers***: Those who neither intend to act nor do so. **Model of Action Phases** **The model of action phases delineates goal pursuit into** - ***Predecisional*:** Selecting goals based on desirability and feasibility. - ***Preactional*:** Initiating actions through effective planning. - ***Actional*:** Overcoming contextual threats to continue goal striving. - ***Postactional*:** Evaluating outcomes and feeding back into future goal selection. **Four Problems Underlying the Intention-Behavior Gap** 1. **Failing to Get Started:** Issues like forgetting or not recognizing opportunities to act. 2. **Getting Derailed:** Interference from distractions, competing goals, or automatic behaviors. 3. **Not Calling a Halt:** Difficulty disengaging from unproductive goal pursuits. 4. **Overextending Oneself:** Reduced capacity for future goals due to resource depletion. **Implementation Intentions:** Defined as \"if--then\" plans specifying situational triggers and responses (e.g., \"If situation Y occurs, then I will do X\"). - Aim to bridge the gap between goal intentions and behavior by automating responses to situational cues. Defined as \"if--then\" plans specifying situational triggers and responses (e.g., \"If situation Y occurs, then I will do X\"). - Aim to bridge the gap between goal intentions and behavior by automating responses to situational cues Why Implementation Intentions Work: - Increase accessibility of situational cues. - Enhance automaticity of responses, leading to quicker and more efficient action. - Aid in overcoming self-regulatory challenges such as distractions or resource depletion. **Main Results (Summarized in the Discussion Section)** **Effectiveness:** A meta-analysis of 94 studies demonstrated that forming implementation intentions has a medium-to-large positive effect on goal attainment. Processes Facilitated by the following factors**:** **Initiating actions at the right time.** - Shielding ongoing goal pursuits from distractions or conflicting stimuli. - Disengaging from goals when necessary. - Preserving resources for future goal pursuits. - Practical Implications: